Ed.  Ub- 


I059 


Bennett 
Formal  Discipline 


THE  LIBEIARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  sta 


mped  below 


STATE  NORMAL  SOiOOi, 

feOS  ANGBUBS,  CHU. 


\ 


FORMAL    DISCIPLINE 

oUXENOkMALStiiOyL, 

UOS  A^GBI^BS,  CALK. 

BY 
CHARLES  J.  C.  BENNETT,  A.  M. 


I7S>5^ 


PUBLISHED  BY 

Ucacbcrs  College,  Columbia  Tllniverslti? 

NEW  YORK 
1907 


1908 


'LP 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

Page 
The  Meaning  of  the  Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline  -  .  -  7 
The  Extent  of  Belief  in  It  and  Practice  According  to  It        -        -         8 

PART  I.  EVIDENCE     FROM    ANALYTIC     PSYCHOLOGY 

Analysis  of  the  Doctrine  „ 

Analysis  of  the  "Common  Element" 23 

PART  II.    EVIDENCE  FROM  EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

Empirical  Studies  of  Formal  Discipline 30 

New  Experimental  Data   -        - 

45 


Ok 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

Introduction 

Meaning  of  the  Doctrine.  Arising  sometimes  out  of  a  prion 
philosophy,  and  at  other  times  out  of  naive  observations  on 
actual  life,  there  has  for  a  long  time  existed  the  notion  that 
mental  power  was  a  sort  of  entity  which  could  be  turned  in  any 
direction,  to  the  solution  of  any  problem.  This  is  indicated  by 
such  phrases  as,  "He  is  a  man  of  ability,"  or,  "He  has  had 
good  mental  training,"  or,  "He  was  well  disciplined  in  col- 
lege," or  "He  has  great  intellectual  power,"  or  "He  is  a  man 
of  deep  insight, "  or  "unusual  foresight."  In  all  these  classes 
there  is  no  specification  of  the  lines  in  which  these  abilities  are 
sharp  or  effective,  no  peculiar  specification  being  considered  in 
the  general  statement.  The  same  is  commonly  heard  in  describ- 
ing people  in  other  realms  of  expression,  as,  "He  is  a  man  of 
fine  feeling,"  or  "He  is  very  sensitive,"  or  "He  is  very  appre- 
ciative or  full  of  sentiment;"  or  still  again  in  another  general 
field,  "He  is  a  man  of  strong  will,"  or  "of  great  force." 

From  these  more  general  affirmations  concerning  human 
character,  there  are  numerous  gradations  toward  the  specific. 
For  example,  "He  is  a  good  reasoner,"  "an  acute  thinker,''  "a 
shrewd  observer,"  or  "He  is  a  lover  of  the  beautiful,"  or  "is 
fond  of  history,''  or  "has  great  courage.''  In  all  these  it  will 
be  noticed  that  there  is  no  particular  line  in  which  these  capaci- 
ties are  said  to  be  manifested.  The  question  is  not  put :  In 
what  subjects  is  he  an  acute  thinker,  or  of  what  sort  of  beauti. 
ful  thing  is  he  a  lover,  or  in  what  phases  of  life  is  he  courage- 
ous, e.  g.,  in  fighting,  or  in  facing  an  audience  or  a  woman;  or 
of  what  sort  of  history  is  he  fond,  or  in  what  lines  is  he  a  good 
observer.  Again  the  question  may  be  more  narrowly  put :  He 
is  a  good  mechanic,  but  with  what  tools.'  She  is  a  good 
musician,  but  on  what  instrument.!*      She  is  a  good  painter,  but 


8  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

with  what — water  color,  oil,  or  pastel?  Now  these  narrow 
questions  are  not  what  the  advocate  of  formal  disc  ipline  puts. 
He  takes  the  larger  words  as  exponential  of  character,  like 
"well.trained  mind,"  and  holds  that  the  particular  actions  are 
simply  the  outcome  in  certain  directions  of  that  general  mental 
attitude. 

And  the  result  on  the  side  of  education,  both  in  theory 
and  practice,  is  apparent.  Any  subject  which  exercises  the  stu- 
dent is  as  good  as  any  other,  or,  if  there  is  any  difference,  it  is 
one  of  degree.  The  remoteness  of  the  subject  from  the  life 
which  the  student  is  to  follow  is  of  no  importance,  whether  this 
remoteness  relates  to  the  subject  matter,  the  method  of  getting 
that  subject  matter,or  the  accomplishment  effected  by  the  study. 
Though  one  were  to  be  a  Christian  in  adult  life  in  morals  and 
religion,  the  study  of  pagan  literature  was  as  generally  helpful 
in  that  direction  as  the  study  of  Jewish  literature,  for  after  all  it 
gave  the  general  things  called  "culture,''  "outlook."  The 
same  was  held  to  be  true  of  history,  so  that  even  yet  modern 
history  occupies  a  very  subordinate  place,  if  any  at  all,  in  most 
of  the  high  schools,  which  are  thinking  more  especially  of  the 
mental  development  of  the  student  as  opposed  to  the  college 
which  has  more  nearly  in  mind  the  nearness  of  practical  life. 
Indeed,  the  great  argument  for  the  classics,  for  geometry,  for 
algebra,  in  the  older  courses,  and  later  for  the  introduction  of 
botany,  physics  and  astronomy,  and  still  later  for  drawing, 
nature  study  and  manual  training,  has  been  in  more  or  less 
explicit  form  the  dogma  of  formal  discipline,  i.  <?.,  that  each  of 
these  are  generally  helpful  to  the  mind  as  such,  or,  one  grade 
removed  from  this,  are  productive  of  ready  memory,  keen  per- 
ception, accurate  reason,  lively  imagination.  Such  words  or 
phrases  as  "intellectual  power,"  "moral  training,"  "mental 
force, "" fibre, "  "taste,"  "character, "  "disposition"  are  the  ends 
of  school  training. 

Extent  of  Belief  in  and  Practice  According  to  the  Doctrine.  The 
Greeks  held  in  theory,  as  well  as  in  practice,  to  the  theory  of 
general  training.  Plato  conceived  of  a  kind  of  dance  which 
would  not  only  bring  out  all  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the 
body,  but   likewise   those  of  the   mind.     Their  whole   training 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  9 

would  be  largely  of  the  character  called  culture  by  us  today 
However,  the  life  of  the  Greek  referred  to  by  Flato,  as  by 
Aristotle,  was  that  of  one  of  the  upper  classes  only,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  slaves,  and  was  thus  allowed  to  disport  himself  in  an 
easy  and  untechnical  way  in  politics  or  art,  or  conversations 
about  everything  under  the  sun.  Thus  there  was  a  closer  unity 
between  the  matter  and  method  of  the  school  and  of  after  life 
than  at  first  appears.  But  with  the  appearance  of  Scholasti. 
cism,  formal  discipline  started  on  a  career  of  centuries.  All  one 
needed  was  a  training  in  logic,  in  intellectual  gymnastics,  and_ 
from  this  source  of  knowledge,  the  inner  consciousness,  could  be 
spun  out  all  good  and  worthy  things.  This  notion  fixed  logic  in 
the  course  for  all  these  passing  years.  Latm  and  the  classics 
generally  were  studied  in  the  middle  ages  for  the  knowledge 
they  contained,  and  that  only  as  mentioned  above ;  but  as  the 
other  tongues  developed  literatures,  they  were  continued  partly 
by  the  force  of  traditional  inertia,  and  partly  on  account  of  their 
supposed  ^ii^cv^}indT^^_vahie.  Coming  on  to  our  own  day,  the 
advocates  of  even  such  seemingly  practical  subjects,  as  manual 
training,  including  cooking,  sewing,  and  gardening,  either  in 
deference  to  the  customary  justification  of  school  subjects,  or 
to  some  really  supposed  logical  connection,  take  special  pains 
to  say  that  these  things^re  n£t_JaUx^iii£edfor^eir  practical 
valiae_;  far  from  it,  they^re  simply  to  achieve^ rnoreejffectively 
than  did  the  old  list  those  points  jpl.  .general  culture^  and  the. 
whetting  up~^f  jje^^^^^ll^d-if^CuUiP-s,  as  jpepipry,  jpi^fiirLa- 
tion,  reason,  etc.  The  advocates  of  nature  study  say  that  it 
EeTpsTo  better  observation,  in  respect  to  both  the  number  of 
things  observed  and  the  acuteness  of  the  process.  Their  favorite 
phrase  is,  "It  trains  in  observation,"  and  their  general  position 
is  that  it  does  jiot^  JCng.]^  mnrh,  .  if  _rtny,  _-  difFer(^rp  what  is 
observe^/'soTongjis^hat  mental^  functj.onjs_p^erformed.  "WitTi 
some~vievv  "Eb  tKe  study  of  the  law  in  my  earlTer  days,  I  was 
repeatedly  advised  to  study  mathematics  that  my  mind  might 
be  trained  into  accurate,  well  balanced,  logical  and  exhaustive 
methods.  On  the  other  side,  law  is  often  studied  in  general 
courses  for   its   cross   effects  in   avenues  in   no  ways   legal.  (^) 

^Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University  lately  opposed  an  Act  before  the  Cal- 
ifornia Legislature  to  free  her  graduates  in  law  from  the  bar  examinations 
on  the  ground  that  her  purpose  was  not  directly  to  prepare  lawyers. 


^- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


This  position  on  formal  discipline  is  clearly  revealed  in  all  that 
very  large  class  of  people  in  this  country  who  send  their  chil- 
dren to  private  military  schools,  which  are  in'no  sense  prepara- 
tory to  West  Point.  These  parents  are  avowedly  not  thinking 
of  their  sons  becoming  warriors,  and  it  is  often  the  very  boys 
who  are  sent  to  these  schools^  who  are  in  no  special  mood  for 
soldierly  service  and  care  little  for  the  drills  which  they  are 
compelled  to  undergo.  But  the  "patent  declarations  of  these 
schools  are  that  the  students  learn  respect  for  law,  obedience, 
promptness,  attention  to  duty  and  to  details,  courage,  patriot, 
ism,  and  all  the  host  of  things  which  skill  in  precise  conformity 
to  law  and  authority  bring.  The  same  principle  lies  at  the  base 
of  much  of  the  militarism  of  the  public^schools  in  their  march- 
ing here  and  there,  keeping  in  line,  "heads  up,  eyes  to  the 
front,''  the  slipping,  sliding  and  ^starting  at  "one,  two,  three," 
etc.,  ad  infinitum.  So  also  in  many  institutions  for  orphans  and 
the  like,  in  which  the  lights  go  out  at  this  time,  rising  bells 
ring  at  another,  everything  working  according  to  machinery 
and  mathematics.  All  this  is  done  not  for  the  reason  or  even 
expectation  that  the  children  will  do  these  same  things  in  after 
life;  for  the  leaders  of  these  schools  show  by  their  own  actions, 
as  well  as  by  confession,  that  these  are  not  the  ways  of  life. 
But  such  training  teaches  the  children  to  do  the  things  they  are 
not  to  do  in  the  right  way,  at  the  right  time,  etc.  ^Indeed, 
there  are  two   implicit   articles  in   this  creed:    first,  that^lha. 


rht  act., 
e.  g.,  going  out  oi  a  tneaier  pro^nyt^::^)^  «g/ doing  that  thing, 
but   something  else;    second,  jhat_ the  chjld  \y ill  be  best  pre-^ 
pared  for^ertainthings  not  only  by  not  doing^  those,  things,  but 
InHeeSnby^dojng  nothing  abouF'thein iirlatrall  related  to  them. 
iatisT^y   this  life  of  negation,  greater  capacity   will  ^e" 
acquired  for  positive  action    later  on.     I   wish   to  repeat   for 
emphasis  that   whatever  good   or  evil   exists   in  the  convents, 
cloistral   schools,  and  all   others   with  walls  about  them,  is  a 
direct  outcome  of  the  notion  or  doctrine   of  formal   discipline, 
stated  from  its  negative  side.     Itclearlyim^Hes^rtiatJ^ 
ing  up   of  the   organism    in  oneway— Tor^living  Jhings  keeg^^ 
changTng^nd  growmg'^wiTr'BeTTie  most~efTectivepreparation 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  n 

for  actions  depending  on  habits  in  no   way  comparable   to  those 


earlier  tormec 


A  later  form  of  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline,  approved 
in  high  circles,  is  in  connection  with  the  new  system  of  elec- 
tives  in  our  colleges  and  universities.  The  administrators  of 
these  institutions  disavow  any  connection  with  professional 
schools  or  trade  schools  as  such,  holding  that  it  does  not  make 
much  difference  what  the  student  takes  so  that  he  takes  it  well ; 
i.  e.,  it  makes  no  difference  what  his  business  or  calling  after  he 
leaves  the  university  will  be,  a  thorough  course  in  one  thing 
being  about  as  good  as  another.  There  is  apparently  the  belief 
that  this  one  elected  subject,  rightly  pursued,  will  give  the 
student  something  which  will  carry  over  into  any  or  all  fields 
whatsoever. 

The  following  citations  are  given  to  illustrate  the  state- 
ments just  made  and  to  indicate  the  use  made  of  the  word  "dis- 
cipline.'' 

The  type  of  instruction  should  be  disciplinary,  rather  than  practical.^ 
The  mind  is  chiefly  developed  in  three  ways  :  by  cultivating  the  powers 
of  discriminating  observation  ;  by  strengthening  the  logical  faculty  ;  and 
by  improving  the  powers  of  comparison.  As  studies  in  languages  and  in  the 
natural  sciences  are  best  adapted  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  observation  ;  as 
mathematics  are  the  traditional  training  of  the  reasoning  faculties,  so  his- 
tory and  its  allied  branches  are  better  adapted  than  any  other  studies  to  pro- 
mote the  invaluable  mental  power  which  we  call  judgment.^ 

This  same  committee,  including  among  others,  Charles  W. 
Eliot,  Wm.  T.  Harris,  and  James  B.  Angell,  say : 

On  the  theory  that  all  the  subjects  are  to  be  considered  equivalent  in 
educational  rank  for  the  purpose  of  admission  to  college,  it  would  make  no 
difference  which  subjects  he  had  chosen  from  the  programme — he  would 
have  had  four  years  of  strong  and  effective  mental  training.'^ 

To  this  James  H.  Baker  objects  as  it  ignores  "Philosophy, 
Psychology,  and  the  Science  of  Education.''^) 

Arithmetic,  if  it  deserves  the  high  place  it  conventionally  holds  in  the 
educational  system,  deserves  it  mainly  on  the  ground  that  it  is  to  be  treated 
as  a  logical  exercise.* 

^W.  H.  Payne,  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,  p.  50. 

^Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1892, 
p.  168. 

^Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1892, 
p.  87. 

*Bain,  Education  as  a  Science,  p.  152. 


12  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

Arithmetic,  when  taught  with  this  in  mind — the  notion  of  logical 
method — gives  to  the  pupil  not  knowledge  of  facts  alone,  but  that  which 
transcends  such  knowledge,  namely,  power.^ 

Value  of  technical  instruction,  that  which  regards  hand  and  eye  training 
per  se  as  an  essential  part  of  human  culture.^ 

During  dictation  (exercises)  the  child  can  get  no  chance  to  play,  sleep, 
be  idle,  or  do  mischief.  The  process  is  the  best  and  most  perfect  drill  for 
order.3 

The  fiction  of  formal  education  (Bildung)  must  be  given  up.  In  general 
there  exist  simply  as  many  kinds  of  formal  education  as  there  are  essen- 
tially different  phases  of  intellectual  employment.* 

For  the  training  of  this  power  of  observation,  it  does  not  matter  what 
subject  the  child  studies,  so  that  he  study  something  thoroughly  in  an  obser- 
vational method.  If  the  method  be  right,  it  does  not  matter  among  the 
numerous  subjects  well  fitted  to  develop  this  important  faculty,  which  he 
choose  or  which  be  chosen  for  him.^ 

Mathematics  does  furnish  the  power  for  deliberate  thought  and  accu- 
rate statement,  and  to  speak  the  truth  is  one  of  the  most  social  qualities  a 
person  can  posess.® 

Mathematics  no  more  teaches  reasoning  in  the  ordinary  sense  than 
traveling  by  railroad  fits  a  man  for  exploring  in  Central  Africa." 

Nothing  is  better  for  developing  gradually,  and  methodically,  all  the 
intellectual  faculties  of  children  than  the  study  of  grammar  and  literature. 
They  exercise  memory,  sagacity,  taste,  judgment — under  all  its  forms.* 

H.  Sidgwick  quotes  the  above  and  assents  to   it   in  essays 
on  a  Liberal  Education,    but  feels  it   somewhat  too  sweeping. 

By  cultivating  the  Greek  and  Roman  languages  we  acquire  skill  in  all 
mental  operations.  The  study  of  mathematics  ranks  next  in  importance 
and  furnishes  an  excellent  training  to  the  faculties.^ 

^Smith,  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics^  p.  26. 

^Fitch,  Educational  Aims  a?td  Methods,  p.  158. 

^Manual  for  Public  School,  1850,  p.  158. 

*Rein,  Outlines  of  Pedagogics,  p.  42. 

^Charles  "EAioX.,  Eorum,  1892,  p.  428. 

*Dutton,  Social  Phases  of  Education,  p.  30, 

'J.  M.  Wilson,  Master  of  Rugby,  Essays  on  Literary  Education,  p.  24. 

^M.  Cournot,  De  I'Instruction  Publique. 

^Paulsen,  on  the  stated  purpose  of  the  Gymnasia. 
Russell,  Higher  German  Schools,  p.  74. 


PART  I 


EVIDENCE   FROM    ANALYTIC  PSYCHOLOGY 


Analysis  of  the  Doctrine  of  Formal  Discipline.  One  of  the 
reasons  for  the  differences  among  people  about  the  truth  of  the 
doctrine  of  formal  discipline  is  the  different  meanings  assigned 
to  the  phrase  and  to  the  other  phrases  used  for  the  meaning. 
The  Germans  call  it  formal  "Bildung,"  or  formal  education;  it 
is  also  called  formal  training.  While  the  second  word  in  each 
case  has  a  slightly  different  implication,  they  are  at_^one  in^e 
emphasis  of  theformal_element  as  oppose^  Tothe  content 
"TeatureT      THlTfoTlowing  are  some  of  the  meanings  which  it  has 

reneral  ca- 


I         / 


of  a  simple  gas:  invisTble,  simple,  active,  possessing  a  unity 
of  direct  contact,  as  well  as  of  function.  A  man  who  inadver- 
tently uses  the  word  "faculties"  will  hasten  to  say  that  he 
believes  in  a  mental  oneness.  Under  this  position,  a  man 
trains  his  mind,  and  that  is  all  there  is  to  it.  One  person  may 
do  it  in  one  way,  and  another  in  a  different  way,  but  the  goal 
is  the  same :  mental  energy  or  sharpness  results.  Volkmann's 
statement  that  "whatever  remains  isolated,  doesn't  enter  into 
development,"  is  both  true  and  false — true  in  that  no  such 
separate  thing  could  be  a  real  mental  addition,  but  false  in  that 
there  could  be  no  such  isolated  knowledge.  And  strangely 
enough  this  thesis  of  spiritual  power  has  come  largely  as  a  reac- 
tion against  the  faculty  psychology,  ignoring  the  truth  of  the 
Wolffian  position  in  its  efforts  to  show  its  falsities.  But  they 
have  largely  the  same  outcome  for  education :  they  both  make  a 
large  opening  for  the  generalized  effects  of  special  training. 
This  point  on  its  psychological  side  will  be  taken  up  later. 


I>}f' 


//' 


M 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


f 


However,  there  is  much  naive  observation  to  lead  to  this 
"central  energy"  doctrine.  We  see  that  a  brisk  walk,  though 
its  particular  form  may  be  limited  to  the  exercise  of  a  few 
muscles,  has  a  general  bodily  effect  of  making  one  feel  better; 
or  on  the  other  hand  a  day's  work  with  a  very  limited  lot  of 
muscles,  the  others  being  in  a  state  of  apparent  rest,  makes  the 
whole  body  and  mind  tired.  Each  action  seems  to  get  a  general 
response, there  seems  to  be  such  a  thing  as  inter-organic  sympa- 
thy. It  is  easy  to  carry  over  this  generalization  to  the  realm  of 
mind,  and  to  make  similar  conclusions  for  it.  Conscious  exper- 
ience, also,  supports  this  view,  or  seems  to.  We  have  a  feeling 
of  unity,  a  persistence  of  self  oneness,  not  only  longitudinally 
but  latitudinally,  not  only  from  day  to  day,  but  in  all  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  day  at  one  time.  We  do  not  feel  any  such  mental 
members,  as  we  do  physical.  So  whether  we  take  analogy  or 
direct  consciousness,  we  may  very  rationally  come  out  at  the 
same  place ;  namely,  that  no  effect  is  local,  nor  even  localized 
with  branches  into  other  regions.  Mind  is  then  a  totality,  a 
unity,  and  any  effectonkistotalj^^ni^^ 

The'second^lnean  i  ng~ofrorma  1  discipline_does  not  go  so  far. 
Man  is  a^umtyTHut  only  in  certain  respects.  It  is  now  a  matter 
of  the  one  including  the  many.  Man  includes  within  himself 
many  little  men,  each  with  a  different ^cKaracter,^et  in  some 
my^tenouswaycapaBTe^o^  other.  _These  are 

calleT'^erceptlorv  Memo^  Imagination,  Reason,  Feeling, 
and  WuiT  They  are  entirely  disparate  in  character  and  in  func- 
Honp^uT'each  is  as  real  an  entity  and  also  as  homogenous  in 
constitution  as  was  "The  Mind"  of  the  first  position.  The  pre- 
cise attitude  of  this  faculty  psychology  was  laid  bare  in  the  phren- 
ology of  Gall  who  located  each  of  these  separate  persons  with 
the  names  given  above,  in  a  separate  compartment  of  the  brain. 
A  man  didn't  reason; his  Reason  did.  A  man  didn't  memorize; 
his  Memory  did.  A  man  didn't  will,  but  his  Will  did.  A  man 
was  not  imagination,  memory,  etc.  ;  but  he  had  imagination, 
memory,  etc.,  assistants  which  he  employed  when  he  needed 
them.  He  himself  was  different  from  all  these,  as  they  were 
different  each  from  the  other.  He  really  was  a  something  outside 
of  his  own  mental  states  of  Memory,  Imagination,  Will. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


IS 


There  are  three  important  sub-phases  of  this  general  posi- 
tion,  which  need  to  be  stated.  The  first  was  put  forward  forci. 
bly  by  Beneke,  one  of  the  first  strong  opponents  of  the  Wolffian 
psychology  and  its  consequent  pedagogy.  He  considered  that 
there  were  three  original  possessions,  different  in  degree  but 
belonging  to  every  person:  (a)  animation  or  sprightliness 
(Lebendigkeit),  which  shows  itself  in  making  of  concepts, 
judgments,  relations;  (b)  power  or  force  (Kraftigkeit),  which 
shows  itself  in  greater  moderation,  less  pain,  fear,  quicker 
recoveries;  and  finally,  (c)  impressionability,  sensitivity 
(Empfindlichkeit) ;  these  three  are  fundamental  impulses,  origi- 
nal capacities,  which  become  differentiated  into  many  forms  of 
activity  in  later  life.  Any  enrichment,  dwarfing,  or  modifica. 
tion  of  these  primitive  mental  sources  modifies  all  the  mature 
processes  depending  on  them.  The  analogy  in  the  biological 
world  is  the  differentiation  in  evolution  from  a  single  homog- 
enous protoplasmic  cell  into  the  later  complex  animals.  These 
original  possessions  constitute  a  sort  of  general  intelligence, 
whose  early  cultivation  or  limitation  diffuses  itself  into  all  later 
developments.  (^) 

The  second  is  that  represented  by  Dr.  Bahrwald,(^)  who 
conceives  of  the  mind  after  the  form  of  society,  in  which  there 
are  individuals,  but  which  is  much  more  than  the  mere  numeri- 
cal unity  of  these.  There  is  a  general  intelligence  resulting 
from  the  refinements  and  organization  of  experience  on  the 
passive  side,  and  also  in  turn  reacting  upon  and  directing  these 
on  later  individual  experiences.  This  is  also  really  the  position 
taken  by  Spearman,  who  holds  that  there  is  a  kind  of  domina- 
ting or  directing  mentality  susceptible  of  training  through  the 
exercise  of  its  specific  expressions.  "There  exists  a  something 
that  we  may  provisionally  termjGeograJ^lenie  iJisHnmmation^ 
anSTImTlarly  a  General  intelligence,  andJarther'tKat  the'TuncJr 
Tlonal  corFespondence' 
thyTabsol^ute/i^Xy 

The  third  sub-phase  concerns  the  internal  groupings  oi 


lese  two  is  not  appreciably  less 


faculties,  within  >yhjch  cross  effects  are  possible. 


With  Socra- 


^Beneke,  Erziehungs  und  Unterrichtslehre. 

■^Bahrwald,  Theorie  der  Begabung,  p.  12. 

*Spearman,  American  Journal  of  Psychology, yo\.  15,  p.  272. 


/. 


i6  FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 

tes,  knowledge  determined  will,  and  since  then  there  have  been 
clairnannioT''mteractiona^^  in  all  degrees :  e.  g.,  know- 

^ledge_affectsthefeelings,  and  the  latter  the  will;  memory  acts 
on  reasoning,_and  reasoning  on  pre^entatToh,  but  not  on  the 
differentfacuiti^^The  feelings ;  so'alVo  the  Tove  for  beauty  in 
form  increases  the  sensitivity  to  the  aesthetic  in  other  direc- 
tions, but  is  inoperative  on  the  will. 

The  third_jiew_of  formal  discipline  does  not  go  so  far  as 
the  second.  While  the  distinction  is  a  very  real  one,  especially 
in  practice,  it  is  not  easy  for  me  to  give  it.  Its  cleavage  does 
not  run  between  separate  mental  powers  which  may  operate  in 
a  relatively  independent  way,  but,  without  distinguishing 
between  the  mind  and  body  as  such,  between  organic  processes. 
The  conception  is  that  the  whole  person^  as  such,  functionsjn 
a  certain  way  this  moment  ancT  in  another  way  the  next,  and 
that  we  may  rightly  classify  these  acts  on  the  basis  of  certain 
elements  common  to  the  processes  rather  than  on  the  things  or 
powers  which  make  up,  or  arc  involved  in  these  acts^  Under 
the  former  scheme,  one  trained  his  attention ;  under  this,  he 
trains  himself  to  do  a  complicated  act  called,  as  in  the  other, 
"attention."  Or,  one  is  trained  in  discrimination,  which  in  its 
very  wording  puts  emphasis  on  the  act.  This  view  refers  to  a 
congeries  of  nerve,  muscle,  attention,  etc.,  which  makes  dis- 
crimination a  function  rather  than  a  fact  with  mere  content. 

To  illustrate,  a  wood-chopper  in  the  handling  of  the  axe 
uses  hands,  arms,  eyes,  will,  etc.  So  likewise  does  he  use  the 
same  arms,  eyes,  will,  etc.,  in  pushing  the  plane,  or  driving  a 
nail.  The  same  engine  may  push  or  pull,  or  carry  a  load;  may 
run  up  hill  or  down,  backward  or  forward.  The  classification 
is  made  on  the  act  in  which  the  engineer — engine  organism, 
enters  as  the  agent. 

It  conceives  of  every  act  as  inyolyingQo  a,  greater  or  less^ 
degree  all  the  mentaT^na  physical  capacities.  For  example,  in 
reaHmgTn~^«(?  VadisotX^o^xe  inRome,  there  is  involved  not 
only  my  ability  to  image  absent  objects,  but  also  my  capacity 
to  memorize,  to  discriminate,  to  compare,  to  sense,  to  judge, 
etc.,  besides  the  motor  accompaniments,  which  are  equally 
present,  though   not  to  the  same  apparent  degree.     This  posi- 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 


17 


tion  is  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  manual  training  advocates  who 
speak  of  the  hand-eye-mind  training,  or  the  motor-sense  adjust- 
ments and  co-ordinations. 

There  is  another  phase  of  this  diffusion  theory  of  participation 
which  I  shall  have  to  put  in  as  a  corollary,  and  yet  it  may  have 
all  of  the  truth  there  is  in  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline. 
Emerson  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  character  is  not  intel- 
lect, great  mentality,  or  exceptional  emotional  qualities,  or 
unusual  volitional  capacities,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  number 
or  novel  quality  of  their  actions.  Yet  we  say  that  certain  per- 
sons have  strong  characters,  commendable  dispositions,  a  some- 
what which  underlies  all  those  more  noticeable  mental  and  phy- 
sical phenomena.  Points  in  this  generaj_niake-up  ma^be^s£ti>- 
arat^d_out,  such  as  cautTonT^^eTjabnity.  s^anity,  prudence^  taste^ 
atmosphere,  integrity,  wholesomeness,  application,  sympathy. 
etc.  These^arejioj^actsiihey^  are^  totaljia^itualways  of  per- 
sonal response^  Their  unity  undoubtedly  connotes~~wh"at  we 
mean  by ' ' culture. ' '  Thesejarge  personal  values  may  not  come. 
from^nxtransfer  of  special  training  in  any  of  the  senses  already 
enumerated.  Yet  h  may  be  tha^system,  industry,  _economv  in 
its  largest  meaning,  personal  unity.  £tc. .  may  be  obtained  froni 
the  study  of  almost  an}'  subject^__and,  for  the  moment  overlook- 
ing the  knowledge  side,  from  one  subject  as  well  as  another. 
These  accomplishments  may  be  called  generalized  habits  or 
modes  of  action.  They  are  often  referred  to  as  the  "sub-con- 
scious" effects  of  education  as  distinguished  from  the  conscious 
ones,  such  as  improvement  in  "method,"  skill,  or  what  not. 
They  are  largely  unmeasurable  and  untestable,  but  constitute 
the  "color, "  the  "atmosphere, "  the  spirit,  the  character.  We 
have  become  a  part  of  every  person  and  thing  we  have  touched. 

The  last  view  of  formal  discipline,  to  be  now  described,  is 
the  extreme  of  the  first!  TF holds  that  we  are  machines  for  do-_ 
ingthin^  just  as  truly  machines  as  any  that  our  hands  fashion 
for  sawing  lumber  or  rolling  iron.  We  are  a  system  of  levers^ 
£ulle_j3^etc. ,  a  conscious  machine,^_aTid  thejryndj^s  ajvord  u^d 
to  distinguish  a— ^C£itain_phase  of  the  machine ;  for  example,  it 
defines  the  purpose,  sees  the  end,  marks  out  the  way — it  is  the 
cabman  on  the  carriage.     Our   learning  to  do  this  and   that  no 


i8  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

more  signifies  that  we  can  do  something  else  than  the  fact  that  a 
saw  is  tempered  and  sharpened  for  sawing  signifies  that  it  can 
make  a  shovel.  It  may  make  a  shovel,  but  that  is  not  because 
if  its  edge  being  a  good  saw  but  because  it  is  of  such  form  that 
it  may  be  adapted  to  the  two  purposes.  So  we  may  do  one^thin^ 
well  and  also  do  another  well,  because  we  are  so__pliably  con-^ 
strucEearHaTwel^ay'HoTheseTwo  things  well.  Also,  I  may  be 
able  to  do  one  tliing^weTl  and" another  very  poorly,  because  in 
this  case  I  am  made  correctly  to  do  the  one  and  incorrectly  to 
do  the  other.  To  do  the  other,  I  shall  have  to  make  some  new 
combinations  of  muscles  and  nerves,  etc.,  that  is,  make  a  new 
machine  for  this  new  work.  In  support  of  this  are  brought  forth 
many  men  of  great  skill  in  one  line  unskilled  in  others,  who 
have  to  get  this  second  skill  if  they  wish  it,  by  as  arduous  labor 
as  if  they  could  do  nothing  else.  There  is  little  or  no  cross 
influence.  We  do  not  cultivate  "powers,"  or  the  "mind,"  or 
' '  f  amities, '  '~"or'air'"'^organism7''^^  specific 

modes  of  action,  each  with  its  own  peculiar  coof^TnafTon^ 
^men^faTa^^moTbr.  Of  course,  the'practical  a3vice  of  this  doc- 
trine in  school  life  is  to  get  at  a  thing  that  is  to  be  done,  with- 
out any  intervention  or  doing  of  another  thing  as  a  medium. 

We  have  no  Memory,  Imagination,  Reason,  but  can 
memorize  this  series  of  facts,  not  necessarily  that ;  have  good 
judgment  about  this  situation,  but  not  another  one ;  can  easily 
picture  certain  conditions,  but  not  others.  As  with  machines 
generally  so  with  men :  there  are  many  sorts. 

These  four  positions  seem  to  me  to  define  the  territory  in 
which  the  problems  of  formal  discipline  arise.  There  yet 
remain  the  two  questions:  What  is  it  that  is  carried  over?  and 
What  are  the  means.? 

The  first_anjwer  is  that  studies  give  an  increase  in  the 
nativeforce,  original  power,  brute~capaaty^^^^^the7oot-pounciro? 
energy^cTtolpealc.'  ^nteiTectuaT"capacities"  carry  here  the 
idea  of  room  tKaT^has  been  enlarged ;  spiritual  or  emotional 
range  that  has  been  extended.  It  is  as  if  more  potentiality  had 
been  added.  No  one  faculty  is  sharpened,  no  special  skill  or 
knowledge  secured;  but  just  as   food  in  the   body  is   carried  to 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 


19 


all  parts  of  the  organism  of  the  growing  child  by  the  circulatory 
system,  without  in  any  manifest  way  giving  skill  or  deftness  to 
any  one  part,  so  mental  pabulum,  through  some  sort  of  mental 
circulation,  apperception,  or  something  else,  adds  energy,  force, 
power,  strength,  range,  capacity,  richness  to  the  soul.  The 
mind  is  built  up  by  what  it  feeds  upon ;  not  simply  by  what  is 
taken  into  it.  but  by  what  is  assimilated.  Then  the  teacher's 
problem  becomes:  "What  are  the  studies  with  these  largely 
nutritious  elements  in  them,  and  what  are  the  proper  ways  of 
presenting  them  so  that  they  will  most  effectively  be  ingested 
by  the  mind,  and,  as  properly  digested  food,  eventuate  in  action? 
What  such  a  teacher  is  after,  then,  is  not  this  or  that  particular 
skill,  or  this  or  that  body  of  knowledge  as  such,  but  the  issuing 
of  opinions,  judgment,  poise,  cosmic  and  human  sympathy, 
insight  and  adaptability— in  short,  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  larger  life. 

The  second  position,  of  course,  denies   the  first,  and  holds 


that  the  oulyresulTw^ich  is  moreJhan_local  in  its  effect  is^ 
^nQwledgep^^TmowleggeoT  factTwhich  are  of  more  or  less  gen- 
erarapplication,  ancn^"mertiogs  particularly. 
'  TFTs  h'eld  more  narrowly  that  one  gets  the  idea  of  accuracy, 
say  in  mathematics,  as  a  proper  rule  to  follow  in  solving  any  sort 
of  problem ;  and  so  though  one  is  never  to  use  mathematics  yet 
as  it  n^CQ^^il^X.^^ par  excellence  the  use  of  care,  precision,  etc.,  it 
is  the  subject  to  study  so  as  to  secure  these  methods  which  are 
of  such  universal  application.  The  function  of  schools  is  to 
J2ligg,.QUtJn  the  clear  forefront  of  consciousness  from  the  frag- 
ments and^nds  of  things ^caTIedloT'convemHce^llpBr^^ 
grapH}^^etc._,  tKecommon  essences,  their  common  values.  and^eiT- 
eralize  therru     GetlheknowleHge^^tan^  


mg_and^ex£eriencin£jn  avital  way  such  things  as_t£uth,  honesty^ 
.ada^bnityj_Jiumanit^^ 

subject,  points  out  that  the  Greek  teachers  so  universalized 
mathematics  in  their  teaching,  that  number  and  geometrical 
form  became  to  them  a  real  way,  a  vital  category  for  thinking 
any  and  all  sorts  of  things  universal,  and  had  been  made  to  arise 
out  of  the  particular,  in  no  mere  metaphysical  way,  but  in  such 
^Western Journal 0/ Education,  May,  1903. 


20  FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 

direct  contact  with  life  that  ever  afterward  it  became  an  apper- 
ceptive form  of  the  mind.  We  surely  do  have  concepts  not 
limited  to  the  particular  act  which  gave  them  origin. 

The  thirdjDOsition^  holds  ^that^skill^_J<eenness,    facilityjs 
transferred.     Logic  maEes  an  acutemaiiimathematics,  an  ejcact 


manTTiistory  gives,  not  the  method  of  memorizing,  but  increased_ 
fea^ness;  Latin  trains  to  close  observation;  astronomy,  to  finer 
and  sharper  imaginative~"aBnTtyr — "The^iTOy  who  is  drilled  in 
manual  training  doeTnaTgeF^cHTefly  a  method  of  procedure  or 
way  of  going  at  things  which  he  chiefly  realizes  would  be  good 
in  the  business  world  when  he  gets  out  into  it ;  but  he  is  made 
into  an  accurate,  polished  machine,  who  will  plan  his  law  cases 
as  he  did  his  joinings.  The  student  will  remember  the  cost 
price  of  his  goods  because  he  has  learned  his  Greek  and  Latin 
vocabulary;  he  will  use  good  judgment  in  putting  in  an  orchard 
or  an  irrigating  ditch,  because  capacity  was  exercised  in  literary 
interpretation.  Prefaces  to  many  of  the  text-books  used  in  our 
schools  freely  confess  that  the  knowledge  which  will  be  carried 
away  will  be  of  limited  application,  as  they  can  very  well  say 
without  fear  of  contradiction  of  algebra,  most  of  arithmetic, 
much  of  geography,  and  still  more  of  language  work,  especially 
analysis.  They  could  hardly  claim  for  much  of  this  work  any 
wholesale  mental  enrichment,  or  deepening  of  the  sympathies 
or  appreciation.s.  Nor  do  pupils  from  it  learn  methods  of  any 
very  large  application,  but  they  are  drilled  in  discrimination, 
in  analysis,  in  observation,  etc.,  and  these  arts  when  once 
acquired  are  usable,  of  course,  wherever  they  are  needed.  Calvin 
Thomas  says,  "the  value  of  German  lies  in  the  scientific  study 
of  German  itself,  in  the  consequent  training  of  the^reason,  of 
the  powers  of  observation,  comparison,  and  synthesis,  in  short 
in  the  upbuilding  and  strengthening  of  the  scientific  intel- 
lect. "(^ 

The  last  view  to   be  mentioned  is  the  one   espoused  by  the 
ukrajjajical^oppo^ents^j^  ajiy  sortof  foqgajdisci^line.      There 
are  no^^genera\jQQyxsJi:s,  evenrelalivelygener^^  J_ll?i^ISv3Il_S2lZ- 
specific  capacities.      We  2earn  to  do  th|s_thiiig,.and4hatj  we_ajre 
^Quoted  in  Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  p.  S3. 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 


verycomplex  engines  for  accomplish  ing  well  denned  endj^nd 
though   this   machine   may   do  many   things^its_oneJrick_  h^s 


nothing  to  do  with  the  other.  A  broomstick  may  be  used  for  a 
cane,  but  its  original  usefulness  will  in  no  way  affect  its  second 
performance.  Consciousness  defines  the  end  of  the  function; 
the  co^dinationofjoTnts,  muscTesTnerves,  etc,  constitute  the 
nieans.  Welearn  to  do  by  doing.  Yes/^ut^^efimtelyT^^^^ 
learnto^^loJhlT^Hln^  Thejg  J^s   notjiing 

incidental,   indirect,  or  mediated  inTKTs^sch'eme.      If  a  child  is 
Inm  at^       He  can't  do  it   by  listening  to 
at   the   flowers.     O'Shea,    for   instance, 


to  learn  to  read,  pu 
the  birds  or  looking 
declares  that  "particular  experiences  give  adjustment  to  particu- 
lar situations  only,  and  not  to  all  sorts  of  situations. "(/)  A 
good  teacher  may  make  a  poor  father;  a  good  lawyer,  a  poor 
statesman  ;  a  good  scientist,  a  poor  citizen.  Not  long  since  a 
tin  manfactuurer  told  me  that  a  man  presented  himself  at  the 
shop  for  work,  with  a  strong  letter  of  commendation  from  his 
last  employer.  He  was  given  materials  which  had  been  cut  out 
by  machinery,  to  put  together.  As  I  recall,  they  were  to  be 
coffee  pots.  He  puttered  about  the  work  for  a  long  while,  and 
then  reported  to  the  manager  that  he  could  not  do  the  task. 
But  he  said,  "If  you  will  let  me  have  the  sheet  tin,  I  can  do 
it."  He  was  so  permitted  just  to  test  his  word;  and  with  great 
skill  he  made  a  complete  vessel  in  a  few  minutes.  This  example 
illustrates  well  the  position  which  these  anti.formalists  take. 

There  is  a  corollary  to  this  last  view  which  may  be  more 
important  than  its  principal  claim.  It  is  that  one  action  will 
aid  another  to  the  extent  tnat  the  two  involve  the  same  mental 
coordinations.  For  instance,  since  the  muscles  of  the  arm  are 
employed  in  drawing  as  well  as  in  writing,  so  the  training  in 
one  process  will  be  of  some  assistance  in  the  other.  Voice 
culture  for  purposes  of  singing  might  assist  the  public  speaker 
or  elocutionist.  "The  thesis  which  I  shall  try  to  defend,  "says 
Thorndike, ' '  is  that  a  change  in  any  one  function  alters  any  other 
only  in  so  far  as  the  two  functions  have  as  factors  identical  ele- 
ments. The  change  in  the  second  function  is  in  amount  that 
due  to  the  change  in  the  elements  common  to  it  and  the  first. 
'^Educatioti  as  Adjustment,  p.  246. 


22  FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 

The  change  is  simply  the  necessary  result  upon  the  second  func- 
tion of  the  alteration  of  those  factors  which  were  elements  of 
the  first  function  and  so  were  altered  by  its  training.  To  take 
a  concrete  example,  improvement  in  addition  will  alter  one's 
ability  in  multiplication,  because  addition  is  absolutely  identical 
with  a  part  of  multiplication  and  because  certain  other  processes, 
e.g.,  the  eye  movements  and  the  inhibition  of  all  save  arithmeti- 
cal impulses,  are  in  part  common  to  the  two  functions."  Q) 
This  conception,  as  opposed  to  the  others,  may  be  called  the 
biological  one,  as  it  is  the  logical  outcome  of  the  doctrine  of 
adaptation  or  evolution.  Thus  there  is  no  actual  transfer  here 
at  all  of  power,  skill,  or  method.  Such  seeming  influences  are 
due  to  the  external  setting,  and  not  to  the  real  differences  in 
organic  functioning. 

There  is  evidently  another  source  of  confusion  among  the 
writers  on  this  subject  which  I  have  not  mentioned.  One  will 
uphold  his  position  by  reference  to  the  one-sidedness  of  a 
specialist,  who  has  all  the  good  qualities  in  his  chosen  line  but 
is  noticeably  uneducated  in  other  things.  Indeed,  he  may  have 
been  at  one  time  in  his  life  fairly  capable  in  several  fields,  but 
his  skill  in  these  was  affected  in  inverse  ratio  to  his  skill  and 
learning  in  the  speciality.  Another  advocate  will,  from  the 
same  volume  of  human  history,  select  cases  where  men  have 
taken  the  restricted  regimen  of  the  old  classical  college,  and 
have  later  stood  at  the  head  in  some  art  or  profession  of  which 
their  college  taught  them  nothing, — stood  higher,  in  fact,  than 
those  who  by  the  apprenticeship  system  had  narrowed  them- 
selves to  that  one  thing  only.  It  is  possible  that  training  car- 
ried on  for  a  short  period  has  a  diffused  effect,  which  manifests 
itself  in  a  more  or  less  heightened  tone  of  all  other  parts,  hence 
all  other  acts ;  whereas,  if  the  practice  is  of  a  very  specific  kind 
and  kept  up  for  a  long  period,  the  tracts  of  discharge  become 
more  pronounced,  the  other  paths  and  complexes  become  in- 
creasingly isolated  and  less  used.  Growth  and  development 
have  ceased  and  the  individual  has  become  a  machine,  a  special- 
ist. This  has  not  only  empirical  support,  but  it  harmonizes 
with  the  doctrine  of   infancy   before   referred   to.     Childhood, 

^Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology^  p.  80. 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE  23 

with  its  vacillating  interests,  its  unsystematized  movements,  its 
many  sided  curiosity,  the  very  apparent  stimulation  of  all  sorts 
of  motor  reactions  by  one  attempt  to  do  one  thing,  say  to  write, 
contrasted  with  the  processes  of  the  adult  which  are  both  exact 
and  limited  in  their  noticeable  influence  to  a  narrow  field,  sue:- 
gests  that  there  may  be  more  of  truth  in  the  doctrine  of  formal 
discipline  for  one  period  of  life  than  for  another,  and  also  for 
one  length  of  time  as  opposed  to  another. 

The  Analysis  of  the  ''Common  Element.'"  I  am  going  to  start 
out  with  a  thesis  stated   by  Thorndike    in  writing  on   this  same 
subject:  viz.,  "A  change jn  one  functjonalters^nv_odie£_^ 
in  sojar^as  the  two  f  unctionFliave  as^^ctors  identicareiemenls^ 
The  changejn  the_second  function  is  in  amounrTHaf~dueloThe 
change  in  Uiee2ements  common  to  Tt7and  to  the  first7'^"'(^  ~This" 
conclusion,  which  hasbeen~arrrved  at  6y  the  examination  of  the 
evidence,  both  logical  and  experimental,  is  put  at  the  beginning 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  arrangement  of  the  evidence.     But 
"common  element,"  though  used  very  extensively  as  a  final  con- 
cession by  antiformalists,(^)is  a  very  ambiguous  term,and  I  shall 
now  call  attention  to  some  of  the  ways  in  which  it  has  been  em- 
ployed. 

It  is  first  to  be  noted  that  the  situations  to  which  the  above 
thesis  is  applicable  cannot  be  determined  in  an  a  priori  Idish'mn 
by  analysis.  It  is  very  difficult,  also,  to  know  when  there  are 
common  elements.  For  example,  the  advocate  of  manual  train, 
ing,  on  examining  the  act  of  a  pupil  in  selecting  a  piece  of  wood 
to  make  a  thin  box,  and  the  act  of  the  same  individual,  now  a 
man  in  life,  in  determining  in  what  city  it  is  best  to  locate  his 
steel  plant,  says  that  "judgment"  is  the  common  element,  and 
that  the  exercise  in  the  former  process  carries  over  to  the  latter. 
This  is  a  mere  topical  question,  but  it  is  not  unusual  in  pedagogy 
to  find  such  queries  made  the  basis  of  educational  theory  and 
practice. 

As  this   whole    inquiry  has   to  do   with  processes,  we   may 
rightly  consider   the  chief   factors  to   be,  (a)  the  mind,  (b)    the 
^Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  p  80 

*See  article  by  members  of  the  Scholia  Club  in  the  Western  Journal  of 
Education,  1903. 


24  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

body,  (c)  the  environment,  and  (d)  the  interaction  of  these  as  a 
unity.  The  common  element,  therefore,  must  be  present  in 
one  of  these  four  situations.  First,  it  may  be  in  the  likeness  of 
the  product  of  acts,  or  of  objects  or  environment.  An  external 
similarity,  multiplying  six  by  seven,  or  adding  eight  and  nine, 
are  alike  in  that  numbers  are  numbers. 

The  act  of  a  cat  getting  out  of  a  box,  and  of  a  man  are 
identical;  both  open  a  door  by  pressing  a  latch.  A  parrot  talks 
and  so  does  a  person.  The  problem  solved  in  the  school  arith- 
metic may  be  the  same  as  the  one  in  the  counting  house.  A 
child  of  Mr.  Smith  is  none  the  less  his  child  when  taught  by 
him  at  school.  But  both  empirical  evidence  and  investigations 
declare  such  cases,  though  identical  when  viewed  externally,  to 
be  very  distantly  related.  The  cat's  act  in  getting  out  of  the 
box  is  almost  wholly  a  result  of  unconscious  selection ;  the 
man's  is  a  highly  deliberative  and  conscious  one.  (^)  Certain 
numbers  as  such  are  identical,  yet  the  correlation  between  the 
simplest  ways  of  handling  them  may  be  very  small.  ('■^)  For 
given  actions  it  has  been  sufficient  to  identify  the  elements  in 
the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  grades  with  the  elements  of 
the  larger  life,  but  it  is  only  a  superficial,  not  a  psychological 
likeness.  In  the  case  of  the  tinner  referred  to  a  few  pages  ago, 
there  was  an  identity  of  product  only.  He  could  make  the 
vessel  in  ong  way  only  from  the  tin  plate.  When  required  to  do 
it  in  a  new  way,  the  chain  of  associated  acts  to  which  he  was 
accustomed  was  broken  in  the  middle,  and  the  initial  ones  com- 
pletely dropped.  He  was  as  helpless  as  would  be  a  child  to  take 
up  the  steps  in  a  demonstration  in  geometry,  many  steps  along. 
Yet  he  was  dealing  not  merely  with  similar,  but  identical 
material  and  output,  and,  more  minutely,  in  ways  or  processes 
which  were  in  part  perfectly  alike. 

Or,  again,  a  fruit  broker  knows  prunes  as  to  their  size, 
color,  species,  weight,  preparation  for  market,  etc.,  all  in 
relation  to  market  values.  But  put  him  in  the  orchardist's  place 
who  looks  at  the  same  fruit  as  a  producer,  and  he  is  not  so  capa- 

^Thorndike,  Animal  Intelligence. 

''Aikens,  Thorndike,  and  Hubbell.    Psy.  Rev.,  IX,  pp.  374-382. 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE  25 

ble  as  an  ignorant  laborer.  Yet  both  are  dealing  with  the  same 
object.  Consequently  no  analysis  of  the  external  condition.s,  or 
subject  matter,  will  suffice  to  discover  the  elements  which, 
because  of  their  sameness,  can  aid  each  other. 

Nor  does  "common  element"  refer  to  similarity  of  two 
mental  states,  though  they  may  both  have  the  same  name. 
Thorndike  and  Woodworth  (^)  have  shown  that  in  the  cases  of 
judging  the  areas  of  slightly  different  forms,  where  most  of  the 
mental  elements  are  apparently  closely  alike,  as  attention,  visual 
sensation,  comparison,  etc.,  the  diffusion  effects  were  very 
slight.  The  taster  of  wines  is  not  noticeably  more  sensitive  to 
differences  in  qualities  of  tea  than  ordinary  folks. 

Again,  it  is  not  easy  to  know  what  are  identical  elements 
when  the  body  as  a  machine  is  analyzed.  It  is  easy  enough  to 
say  that  certain  muscles  and  nerves  are  employed  in  two  acts, 
and  that  training  them  to  do  one  thing  well  will  of  course  train 
them  to  do  another  well ;  but  such  conclusions  seem  only  par- 
tially warranted  in  practice.  Dr.  Jastrow(^)  in  extended  tests  on 
two  sleight.of-hand  performers,  found  that  in  ten  out  of  twelve 
experiments,  involving  dexterous  movements  of  hands  and  eyes 
— the  very  points  of  their  skill— they  were  no  better  than  the 
average  student,  and  in  some  cases  worse  than  the  average.  On 
the  track  team,  the  sprinter  is  no  great  walker.  The  artist  is 
not  famous  for  his  penmanship.  It  is  quite  probable  that  these 
visible  members  of  the  body  are  mere  appendices  to  the  really 
basal  participants  in  any  movement ;  namely,  the  cells  and  fibers 
of  the  nervous  system.  However,  this  is  yet  too  great  a  ten-a 
incognita  to  find  in  it  any  common  elements. 

There  yet  remains  the  total  organism  environment  in  which 
to  seek  the  "common  element."  It  would  be  difficult  to  get  at 
the  bicycle's  secret  by  standing  it  up  and  looking  at  it.  The 
historical  philosopher  would  probably  try  it  in  that  way;  but  the 
machinist  would  put  the  wheel  in  motion,  and  taking  in  the 
entirety,    bicycle,    speed,    path,  etc.,  get   his   principle.     The 

\ Psychological  Revieiv,  Vol.  VI 1 1,  p.  344. 
'^Jastrow,  Science,  N.  S.,  May  8,  1896. 


26  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

environment  is  often  set  over  against  the  subject  for  purposes  of 
practical  distinctions,  but  for  scientific  purposes,  connected 
with  functions,  any  such  breaking  asunder  must  destroy  the  very 
thing  sought  for.  The  real  basis  of  action  is  not  the  sensory 
motor  tract  alone.  The  rather  is  it  an  action,  circle,  a  totality, 
where  the  so-called  environment  is  a  vital,  living  part, — in  it 
are  involved  all  causes:  final,  efficient,  and  formal.  Many 
cross  sections  of  this  circle  may  finally  give  the  analyst  his 
essential  common  element,  and  when  found,  it  may  be  the  least 
suspected  phase  of  the  whole  process.  For  example,  Wood- 
worth  (^)  found  that  mere  exercise  of  the  left  hand,  in  the  effort 
to  reach  an  accomplishment,  did  not  give  an  increase  in  excel- 
lence in  the  right  hand;  it  must  be  successful  practice.  And  so, 
for  the  present,  the  only  final  method  for  reaching  the  truth  de. 
sired,  Mk,what  acts  aid  other  acts,  is  the  one  of  experiment,  of 
trial. 

I  return  now  to  the  general  thesis  which  is  to  be  defended : 
that  there  may  be,  or  may  not  be,  a  transfer,  and  that  it  may  be 
of  different  character  in  different  cases,  and  of  varying  degrees. 
There  are  several  supports  for  this  judgment,  though  not 
proofs,  found  in  the  field  of  biology.  We  are  walking  histories 
of  the  past;  every  tooth,  nail,  lineament,  member,  tells  the 
skilled  observer  what  we  have  been  doing,  under  what  conditions 
we  have  lived.  We  have  developed  under  the  stress  of  circum- 
stances, which  have  always  been  specific  situations.  As  the 
needs  of  life  changed,  new  appliances  were  developed  to  meet 
them,  and  as  the  latter  strengthened,  the  old  appliances,  their 
need  gone,  slowly  passed  away,  or  remained  as  vestigial  organs. 
So  we  do  not  see  any  and  all  sorts  of  things,  are  not  attentive 
to  any  and  all  sorts  of  objects,  nor  able  to  imagine  any  and  all 
sorts  of  situations ;  but  we  see,  imagine,  and  are  attentive  to 
only  those  objects  which  have  been  a  vital  part  of  our  envir- 
onment. 

From  this  statement  it  is  inferable  clearly  that  any  such 
unitary  basis  as  an  amount  of  supposedly  homogenous  energy, 
or  a  complete  organic   function,   (^)  in   every  act   is  untenable. 

^Woodworth,  Psychological  Review.     Mon.  Sup.  13. 

■■^See  pp.  14,  19. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  27 

So  specific  and  needful  are  some  performances  that  others, 
instead  of  being  augmented  thereby,  are  the  rather  slighted  and 
dwindle  away.  On  the  other  hand,  this  very  capacity  of  the 
animal  to  adapt  himself  to  new  situations,  implies  such  a  rela- 
tion between  new  possible  acts  and  the  old  ones,  that  the  latter 
will  aid  the  former  by  participating,  wholly  or  partially,  in 
them. 

This  point  is  Drought  out  by  examining  the  animal  king- 
dom genetically.  Cats  and  dogs  are  wonderfully  skillful  in  do- 
ing certain  things,  but  they  learn  other  closely  similar  acts 
with  great  difficulty.  It  is  near  the  truth  to  say  there  is,  with 
them,  no  transfer  from  one  act  to  another.  With  monkeys, 
there  is  greater  pliability  of  the  organism,  and  with  man,  still 
greater.  He,  however,  is  simply  a  more  complex  machine, 
with  all  his  powers  and  abilities  specific  and  not  general.  So 
his  old  habits  do  aid  in  acquiring  new  ones  of  a  certain  kind; 
viz.,  those  which  are  largely  alike  in  some  biological  essence  to 
the  old. 

From  the  study  of  the  growth  of  the  child,  the  same  point 
is  deducible.  From  youth  on,  life  is  selection> — taking  on  this 
habit  or  that  mannerism,  and  finally  this  trade  or  profession, 
and  finding,  as  in  the  case  of  Darwin,  the  neglected  possibilities 
becoming  more  and  more  impossible.  The  boy  can  easily  learn 
to  ride  the  bicycle,  or  to  speak  a  foreign  tongue,  but  the  adult, 
whether  educated  "all  round"  or  in  a  specialty,  finds  much 
obstruction. 

The  child  can  readily  learn  several  languages,  and  speak 
them  all  equally  well,  but  necessity  forces  a  choice,  which 
becomes  a  habit — and  that  gate  of  opportunity  is  closed,  but 
closed  that  others  may  be  opened.  The  man  has  simply  become 
a  machine  to  grind  out  a  certain  grist :  educational,  legal,  medi- 
cinal, or  what  not.  Habits,  or  training  in  certain  ways,  then, 
aid  others  by  cooperating  with  them ;  by  assisting  them. 

But  there  is  the  other  side.  He  is  never  a  pure  machine; 
he  is  alive, and  is  changing,  so  that  literally  no  two  successive 
moments  find  him  at  the  same  place.  He  represents  an  un- 
stable equilibrium,  hence  every  successive  act  is  not  what  the 
preceding  one  was.      Yet  the   preceding   acts  are  the  strongest 


28 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


determinant  of  what  their  successors  shall  be,— that  is,  educa- 
tion is  possible.  The  effects  of  one  day  are  not  final,  but  deter- 
mine a  new  and  different  condition  of  tomorrow.  "Aj^jmen 
jiever_thmkjthejajnejl^^  — 

the  same   act   over  again^  a^djhe_^sential^jifference^be^^ 
ITvMiig^nHliornrvIn'g   things^ies   in  the  fact  that  2iyigg_thiljis^ 

influence  of  external    surroundings,  butthat  any   change  J.hat_^ 
talces   place  In   fHern  is   not  lost  but   retained,_and,  as  it  were^ 
'KmTfling]"ltg"~OT  foundation  for   future^ 

actions."(^) 

It  surely  would  hardly  be  held  that  the  knowledge  obtained 
in  school  can  be  used  again  only  under  the  conditions  in  which 
it  was  first  taught.  As  Bacon  taught,  it  may  become  power  in 
realms  much  removed  from  its  original  source.  It  becomes  a 
means  of  guidance  in  undreamed-of  situations.  Newton 
learned,  no  doubt,  his  numbers  in  connection  with  balls,  stones, 
people;  he  applied  them  to  stars  and  unseen  forces.  Knowledge 
is  never  mere  cumulaljoa^amatter  of  numerical  incr^g-se^^^as^ 
the  atomisrwouTHTogically  hqld ;  as  surely  as  the  mind  lives  the 
'indivi^uarfacts'aTejostled  along  until  they  are  either  forgotten, 
or  enter  into  vital  connection  with  few  or  many  other  mental 
states.  If  the  extended  application  does  not  arise,  it  is  probably 
due  to  the  character  of  the  knowledge  rather  than  to  the  nature 
of  the  mind. 

This  last  thesis  js  ^su2ported_b}^Moore,  who_considersJjie 
transfer  offtraining  to  come  through  an  acquaintance  with 
^iethods7  ways  oThandiTng^one^rgelf,  data^  prindgles,  ^t ooIsl^^) 
It  isaiso  strongly  empKasizedin  the  educational  philosophy  of 
DI^_^Dewe}^,(^)  The  sch oo l_i s_tq_be  d.  method  of  approach  to  the 
Jargerjjfe^__a^_^lace_wl^^  and  processes  are 

So  the   tests,  in    such  cases,  of  effect  fveeclucat  ion, ' 


acquired 

would  be  of  the  children's  familiarity  with  social  procedure,  and 

their  ability  to  use   this  knowledge  under  novel  circumstances. 

The  function  and  character  of  consciousness,  the   teleology 

^Moore,  Western  Journal  of  Education,  May,  1903,  p.  299. 

*Moore,  Western  Journal  of  Education,  May,  1903,  p,  307, 

'Dewey,  School  and  Society. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  29 

of  knowledge,  throws  a  side  light  on  the  problem  of  transfer.  So 
long  as  mind  was  made  a  receptacle  for  whatever  might  creep 
in  through  the  "windows  of  the  soul,"  as  Dr.  Harris  calls  the 
senses,  little  could  be  said  one  way  or  the  other  on  formal  dis- 
cipline, unless  there  went  with  it  the  notion  of  mind  as  a  sort  of 
spiritual  entity  of  the  homogenous  fluid  sort.  In  that  case, 
transfer  would  be  large  and  inevitable.  But  mind^n_Jact  i^ 
^selective,  active,  motor,  not  as  a  wound-up  toy  which  runs 
helter-skelter,  nor  as  a  vessel  which  takes  in  everything,  but  as 
a  train  on  a  track  that  is  going  somewhere  in  a  special  way.  So 
it  goes  well  in  this  direction  and  poorly  in  another!  We  have 
eyes  to  see,  but  we  do  not  see  many  things  which  are  before  us. 
We  discriminate  easily  here  but  not  there.  These  facts  are 
remembered  at  a  glance;  others  will  hardly  stay  after  many 
repetitions.  These  are  the  evident  truths  of  consciousness, 
aside  from  the  question  of  whether  one  act  aids  another.  And 
it  is  the  same  in  the  emotional  consciousness.  A  physician  by 
whom  I  sat  at  the  opera  lately  was  transported  by  the  music ;  he 
could  literally  feel  a  bodily  reponse  throughout.  Yet  afterward 
he  said  he  could  not  conceive  of  what  religion  meant  or  how  it 
felt,  or  of  what  nature  its  emotions  were.  The  same  distinctions 
are  applicable  to  the  will.  We  desire  and  are  strong  here ;  we 
are  colorless  and  ineffective  there.  We  know  of  visuels, 
tactiles,  audiles;  of  people  who  can  see  words,  but  can  not  say 
them;  who  can  say  them,  but  cannot  write  them  ;  who  can  hear 
them,  but  get  no  meaning  from  them,  whereas  if  they  see  them 
they  can  understand  them,  etc.  So  the  "all-round  man"  and 
the  "many-sided  interest"  are  figures  of  speech.  From  the 
appearance  of  the  impulses  in  the  child,  with  its  accompanying 
movements,  to  the  philosophic  or  professional  interests  of  the 
adult,  tjieJnteresJ^s.^JthejTiotives,  the  methods,  thjg  ffigljngs^^  Jhe^ 
ideals,  the  processes  are  functions,— are  purposeful^ 


PART  II 
EVIDENCE  FROM  EXPERIMENTAL  PSYCHOLOGY 

Empirical  Studies  of  Formal  Discipline 

The  following  section  is  a  summary  of  the  direct  experi- 
mental data  in  so  far  as  they  have  not  already  been  summarized 
in  the  chapter  on  Formal  Discipline  in  Thorndike's  Educational 
Psychology : 

Dr.  Jastrovv  reports  a  series  of  laboratory  tests  made  on  two 
men  famous  for  their  skill  as  sleight-of-hand  performers,  (^)  and 
at  the  same  time  compares  the  data  with  that  obtained  from  a 
group  of  students  who  were  subject  to  the  same  tests.  The  skill 
of  these  men,  due  to  years  of  practice,  was  such  as  to  put  them 
in  the  rank  with  the  world's  few  thousands  of  best  "hand-and- 
eye"  trained  people. 

He  first  determined  their  tactile  sensibility— distance  for 
two  points — with  aesthesiometer.  Mr.  Hermann,  3.5  mm.; 
Mr.  Kellar,  2. 5  mm.  Average  results  from  a  considerable 
number  of  miscellaneous  individuals,  2  mm.  The  next  test  was 
to  arrange  five  weights  in  a  series,  in  which  each  one  weighed 
1-15  of  previous  weight;  Mr.  Hermann  failed,  Mr.  Kellar  sue. 
ceeded;  both  failed  for  weights  differing  by  1-30.  In  general 
test,  92  %  got  the  first  test  all  right,  66%  the  latter. 

Sensitiveness  to  texture:  Subjects  passed  their  fingers  over 
sets  of  wires' wound  closely.  In  the  first  set,  the  wires  in  each 
successive  case  were  one.fourth  coarser;  in  the  second  set,  one- 
eighth  coarser.  The  sets  were  to  be  put  in  order.  Mr.  Kellar 
put  first  set  in  correct  order,  but  got  all  wrong  in  the  second 
set.     Mr.  Hermann  got  both  wrong. 

"Another  form  of  motor  and  tactile  capacity  was  tested  by 
requiring  subject  to  arrange  in  order  a  series  of   bars  of  varying 

^Jastrow,  Science,  May  8,  1896. 


FORMAL   DISCIPLINE  31 

length  by  passing  the  forefinger  across  them."  Both  Mr.  Her- 
mann and  Mr.  Kellar  did  this  successfully,  sixty  per  cent  of  a 
miscellaneous  crowd  also  did  it  correctly.  Both  Mr.  Hermann 
and  Mr.  Kellar  are  ambidextrous.  They  were  tested  in  moving 
both  hands  equidistant  from  a  central  point  to  right  and  left. 
Average  distance  fur  right  hand  was  241.5  mm.,  for  left  hand, 
247  mm.  There  was  no  regularity  as  to  which  hand  would  go 
farther  from  central  point,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
for  Mr.  Hermann,  318,  330,  123,  302,  116,  260  for  right  hand; 
316,  344,  140,  268,  160,  225,  for  left  hand.  This  variation  in 
the  distance  of  the  two  hands  is  common  to  people  in  general. 
For  Mr.  Kellar,  for  right  hand:  281,  357,  404,  155,  108,  313 
mm.;  for  left  hand,  268,  333,  411,  187,  133,337-  Average 
excess  for  left  hand,  8. 5  mm.  ;  average  for  right  hand,  270  mm.  ; 
left  hand  278  mm.  There  was  no  regularity  as  to  which  moved 
the  farther. 

"The  subjects  were  required  to  mark  off  on  the  three  arms 
of  a  cross  a  distance  equal  to  that  marked  off  on  the  upper  arm 
of  the  cross,  50  mm.  The  lengths  of  the  arms  were  unequal. 
Results  for  Mr.  Hermann,  on  the  left  arm,  70.5  mm.  ;  right  arm, 
44.  mm.  ;  lower  arm,  60.5  mm.  Mr.  Kellar,  left  arm,  54.5  mm.  ; 
right  arm,  52.  5  mm.  ;  lower  arm,  50  mm.  Average  for  a  mis. 
cellaneous  group:  left  arm,  54  mm. ;  right  arm,  54  mm.  ;  lower 
arm,  61  mm.  Mr.  Kellar's  average  for  the  lower  arm  was  less 
than  the  general  average. 

Visual  perception  test:  "form  alphabet;"  "twenty-five 
characters  were  made,  composed  of  short  and  long,  vertical  and 
horizontal  strokes  in  various  combinations.  Two  hundred  and 
fifteen  of  these  were  printed  in  miscellaneous  order  upon  a  sheet. 
A  certain  one  of  these  was  singled  out  for  identification,  and 
the  subject  was  required  to  indicate  as  many  occurrences  of  this 
character  as  he  could  detect  within  a  limited  time  {90  seconds). 
Mr.  Hermann  marked  off  eight  correct  ones,  Mr.  Kellar 
marked  off  eleven.  The  general  average  of  persons  succeed 
in  recognizing  about  eight  forms  in  this  time." 

Tests  for  quickness  of  movement  and  of  mental  processes : 
"For  Mr.  Hermann  the  maximum  number  of  movements  of  the 
forefinger  alone  was  72  in  10  seconds,  or  7.2   per  second;  and  of 


32  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

the  forearm,  75,  or  7. 5  per  second.  For  Mr.  Kellar,  forefinger, 
83  in  15  seconds,  or  5.5  per  second;  and  for  the  forearm,  127  or 
8. 5  per  second.  The  average  for  large  number  of  individuals  for 
the  forefinger  movement,  was  5.4  per  second;  and  of  a  group  of 
ten  persons,  4.8  per  second.  The  average  forearm  movement  of 
the  same  ten  persons  was  7.5  per  second.  It  thus  appears  that 
the  movements  of  both  Mr.  Hermann  and  Mr.  Kellar  are  rapid." 
Reaction  time  of  Mr.  Hermann  to  touch  on  right  hand,  104^  ; 
variation,  11  °  ;  Mr.  Kellar's  time  was  129"^  ;  average  variation 
10  ^  .  For  sound  for  Mr.  Hermann,  163  ^  ;  average  variation 
32 '^.  For  Mr.  Kellar,  116'^  ;  average  variation,  25'^.  For 
visual  reaction  for  Mr.  Hermann,  126°;  average  variation, 
26'^  ;  for  Mr.  Kellar,  125°,  average  variation,  6*^.  For  a 
group  of  miscellaneous  people:  touch,  172^;  sound,  165'^; 
light,  176'^.  "It  thus  appears  that  both  of  the  special  subjects 
tested,  their  reaction  time  was  quicker  than  that  of  the  average 
individual.  "(^) 

To  test  manual  quickness  of  movement :  Time  was  taken 
between  the  touching  of  two  instruments  three  feet  apart,  with 
same  hand.  Mr.  Hermann's  time,  610*^,  variation,  76*^  ;  Mr. 
Kellar's,  299'^,  variation,  23°.  Compared  with  ten  other  in- 
dividuals, whose  average  was  364  ^ ,  Mr.  Kellar's  time  is  below 
normal,  although  it  is  equaled  by  six  out  of  the  ten ;  and  Mr. 
Hermann's  time  is  very  long. 

Distribution  of  red  and  blue,  associated  with  movements  of 
right  and  left  hands.  "Mr.  Hermann's  time  was  301  '^ ,  average 
variation,  64°;  Mr.  Kellar's,  256°,  average  variation,  56'^.'' 
Both  shorter  than  with  the  miscellaneous  group.  But  a  more 
complicated  reaction  involved  a  movement  with  any  one  of  the 
five  fingers  in  response  to  the  appearance  of  the  numbers  i,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  behind  an  opening  in  a  screen. ''  Mr.  Hermann's  time 
for  such  a  reaction  was  901  ° ,  with  a  variation  of  200  °  ;  Mr. 
Kellar's  time  being  753^,  with  a  variation  of  91°.  The 
average  time  for  ten  individuals  for  such  a  reaction  is  588®, 
with  a  variation  of  84  "^  .  So  "their  time  is  below  normal  in  a 
reaction  involving  a  simple   distinction  and    choice,  and  is  con- 

1 J  astro w,  Science,  May  8,  1896. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  33 

siderably  larger  than  the  normal  in  a  reaction  involving  a  com- 
plex distinction  and  choice." 

For  quickness  in  perception  of  color:  Mr.  Hermann,  com- 
pared with  40  persons,  had  about  the  same  quickness  5  to  4. 5, 
had  much  better  when  color  and  form  were  combined :  3  to  1.8 ; 
and  also  for  words  seen  separately,  2  to  1.4,  but  could  read 
clearly  fewer  words  in  one  exposure.  So  Jastrow  concludes, 
"On  the  whole  as  regards  the  quickness  and  scope  of  perception, 
Mr.  Hermann  would  rank  well  (except  in  reading  words  in  a  sen- 
tence), but  by  no  means  exceptionally  well  in  the  general 
average."  Mr.  Kellar,  in  a  similar  test,  ranks  below  Mr.  Her- 
mann in  all  but  the  reading  of  words  in  a  sentence,  but  would 
be  equalled  by  86%  of  college  students." 

"I  have  repeated  these  tests  on  a  local  sleight-of-hand  per. 
former,  and  find  for  him  a  good  record  and  particularly  a  great 
quickness  in  movement. " 

At  the  Montana  State  Normal  College,  Dr.  Bagley  under- 
took to  determine  whether  the  habit  of  producing  neat,  well  ar- 
ranged papers  in  the  arithmetic  work  would  function  in  the 
written  work  in  English,  Geography,  and  other  studies.  The 
experiments  were  carried  on  for  three  months  in  the  inter, 
mediate  grades.  The  results  are  most  startling.  The  improve- 
ment in  .the  arithmetic  papers  was  large  and  very  noticeable 
from  the  first,  but  during  the  same  time  there  was  not  the 
slightest  noticeable  improvement  in  the  appearance  of  the 
language  and  spelling  papers.  (^) 

A  recent  extended  contribution  (^)  to  the  problem  of  formal 
discipline  is  limited  strictly  to  the  territory  of  memory.  There 
were  eight  subjects,  all  adults  and  people  of  large  training. 
The  tests  were  secured  through  use  of  A.  non-sense  material : 
(i)  letters;  {2)  figures;  (3)  non-sense  syllables.  B,  sense 
material:  (i)  words;  (2)  Italian  words  with  no  logical  connec- 
tion ;  (3)  poetic  phrases,  and  (4)  prose  sentences.  By  these  the 
immediate  retentiveness  was  determined.      For  testing  the  rate 

"^School  and  Home  Education,  1904,9.  102. 

^E.  Ebert  and  E.  Meumann,  Archiv  fur  die  Gesamte  Psychologic,    IV 
B.  IV  2  H,  1904. 


34  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

of  forgetting,  another  test  was  set  consisting  of  long  rows  of 
non-sense  syllables,  rows  of  many-formed  figures  (visuella 
Zeichen),  Italian  vocables,  poetic  phrases,  and  prose  sentences. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  these  preliminary  tests  were  very  extended, 
especially  the  second  ones,  which  were  relearned  at  intervals  of 
increasing  length,  the  rate  of  forgetting  being  thus  determined 
by  the  comparative  number  of  repetitions  necessary  to  regain 
them. 

Then  came  the  practice  series,  consisting  of  32  rows  of 
non-sense  syllables,  12  in  a  row.  •  However,  only  8  rows  were 
learned,  and  relearned  once,  when  a  test  series  was  again  given. 
This  method  of  retesting  with  the  long  preliminary  series  was 
thus  gone  through  three  times,  and  seemingly  occupied  much 
more  time  than  the  practice  series.  This  taken  in  connection 
with  identity  in  kind  of  some  of  the  material,  and  great  simi- 
liarity  of  the  rest,  made  it  possible  to  report  the  following 
improvement  in  per  cents: 

Words.         Prose. 

11% 
28% 
60% 

11%  9% 

28% 

66% 

These  appear  suflficient  to  the  authors  to  enable  them  to 
say:  "It  may  not  be  denied  when  the  facts  are  taken  into  con- 
sideration that  there  is  a  general  memory  training,  also  that  it 
is  out  of  the  question  to  increase  through  practice  any  special 
memory  isolated  from  the  totality  of  memory  function. "(^) 

In  order  to  test  James'  position  on  the  incapability  for 
increase  in  the  memory  powers.  Winch  exposed  to  different 
school  grades,  at  intervals  of  about  7  days,  twelve  consonants 
arranged  in  four  rows.  After  being  presented,  they  were  repro- 
duced in  writing  in  25  seconds  by  the  children.  As  an  example 
of  the   increase,    standard   seven   may   be   taken.     Tests   with 

ip.  165.    ■^.  157.    Sjgj         (Amounts  Jess  than  i  per  cent  omitted.) 


Non- 

sense syllables. 

Figures, 

B. 

60% 

85% 

Br. 

40% 

57% 

F. 

125% 

160% 

M. 

16% 

22% 

S. 

33%0 

57% 

W. 

Id^oC) 

FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  35 

entirely  different  combinations  of  the  consonants  were  given  on 
June  5,  June  12,  and  July  3,  and  the  results  of  increase  in 
memory  are  shown  by  the  following  per  cents  of  consonants 
remembered  in  proper  order:  25.5,  30.3,  32.7.  His  conclu- 
sion is  that  James  is  wrong;  that  "pure  memory''  is  markedly 
improved  by  practice.  When  one  considers  the  shortness  of 
the  practice  and  the  largeness  of  the  results,  it  seems  pretty 
evident  that  the  interpretation  of  their  efficiency  was  familiarity 
with  novel  data,  and  not  increased  native  power. 

Mrs.  Carrie  Liddle  practiced  sorting  a  pack  of  well-shuffled 
cards  of  six  different  colors,  as  rapidly  as  possible.  All  the 
cards  as  they  were  taken  from  the  pack  were  put  in  a  particular 
stall.  When  the  maximum  speed  in  sorting  this  pack  was 
attained,  another  pack  made  up  of  cards  differing  in  color  from 
those  in  the  first  pack  were  sorted.  The  sorting  of  this  second 
pack  was  kept  up  until  a  speed  limit  was  reached.  Then  a  pack 
having  various  geometrical  designs  on  the  cards  was  distributed 
in  stalls  as  were  those  with  colors.  She  found  that  going  over 
from  one  pack  of  cards,  after  a  speed  had  been  reached,  did  not 
raise  the  time  of  curve  much,  if  at  all,  and  consequently  ihat 
ability  secured  in  discriminating  one  set  of  colors,  or  designs, 
aided  in  doing  the  same  process  with  other  colors  and  designs. 
And  this  was  invariable  for  the  eleven  subjects,  some  of  whom 
were  children ;  the  others,  adults. 

Psycho-physical ly  the  process  was  very  complicated,  so 
that  while  there  is  no  question  of  the  fact  of  distribution  of  cards 
of  one  sort,  with  greater  facility,  from  practice  with  another 
sort — and  that  is  a  pertinent  conclusion, — yet  it  is  possible  that 
this  facility  was  due  to  the  persistence  or  presence  of,  and  hence 
training  of,  some  simple  motor  co-ordinations.  (*) 

Cross- Education.  Another  series  of  studies  bearing  on  the 
general  topic  are  the  "cross.education"  experiments.  By  this 
term  is  meant  the  results  in  skill,  power  or  size  in  one  side  of 
the  body  produced  by  training  the  other.  When  Blair  elec- 
trically stimulated  the  muscles  of  one  ear,  the  motor  discharge 
was  simultaneous  in    the  other,  there   being  a  tendency   for  the 

^From  an  unpublished  thesis  on  Transfer  of  Mental  Facility,    Univer- 
sity of  California,  1904. 


36  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

two  to  work  together,  as  with  children  there  is  a  tendency  for 
both  parts  of  the  body  to  work  together.  So  there  is  this  much 
of  a  cross  effect :  a  co-ordinate  stimulation.  However,  "when 
an  impulse  has  once  actually  reached  the  muscles,  the  process 
from  that  point  onward  is  one  of  segregation,  elimination,  co- 
ordination, adaptation." 

Bryan,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  work  on  motor-ability  says: 
"It  is  certain  that  the  right  hand  does  not  outgrow  the  left,  and 
the  fact  that  at  15  and  16  years  of  age,  the  probability  of  R>L 
is  less  than  at  12,  9,  or  6  years  of  age,  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  left  has  gained  upon  the  right.  At  all  events,  the  fact  that 
the  left  hand  should  make  such  relative  improvement  both  in 
ability  to  carry  out  a  movement,  in  which  the  right  hand  has  had 
all  the  practice,  tends  to  confirm  the  probability  of  bilateral 
effects  of  practice,"  which  he  says  is  largely  mental. 

"The  amount  of  force  which  can  be  exerted  through  one 
hand,  and  the  time  during  which  it  can  be  exerted  depend  upon 
whether  at  the  same  time  or  just  preceding,  force  has  been  ex- 
erted through  the  other  hand."  (^) 

Volkmann,  by  practice,  increased  the  sensitiveness  to  the 
difference  between  two  points  on  the  left  arm  from  23.6  to  11. 2; 
at  the  same  time  there  was  an  increase  in  the  right  arm,  which 
was  not  practiced,  from  26.4  to  15. 7. C)  To  determine  whether 
other  symmetrical  parts  are  thus  trained,  he  found  the  distance 
within  which  two  points  appeared  as  one  for  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  of  both  hands,  and  also  for  the  left  arm.  Increasing  by 
practice  the  distance  on  one  of  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  in- 
creased it  for  all  the  other  fingers  but  not  for  the  arm. 

The  most  extended  experiments  on  this  phase  of  the  subject 
come  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory.  The  first  are 
from  W.  W.  Davis.   (') 

Oscar  Raif,  Professor  of  Music  in  the  Berlin  Hoch  Schule, 
took  the   average  speed  of  some  pupils  for  both  hands.     For  the 

^Bryan,  Atnerican  Journal  of  Psychology,  Vol.  V,  p.  202. 
^Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  p.  86. 
^Yale  Psychological  Studies,  Vol.  VI,  p.  7. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  37 

right,  it  was  116  per  minute;  for  the  left,  112.  He  gave  them 
exercises  for  the  right  hand  only  to  develop  rapidity.  After  two 
months  the  right  hand  yielded  176.  Then  he  tried  the  un- 
practiced  left  hand,  and  it  had  gone  up  to  152,  from  112. 

(')  Exercising  the  great  toe  in  rapid  tapping,  brought  up  the 
ability  of  the  other  foot,  and  both  hands,  though  to  a  much  less 
degree. 

In  lifting  weights  by  the  right  arm,  its  strength  and  size 
were  increased ;  and  at  the  same  time  and  on  the  same  parts  in 
the  other  arm,  which  was  unpracticed,  there  was  an  increase. 

Also  in  lunging  with  a  foil,  six  subjects  were  practiced, 
with  right  hand,  with  the  effect  of  increasing  its  accuracy  very 
markedly;  and  also,  in  a  lesser  degree,  the  accuracy  of  the  left 
hand,  which  was  not  practiced. 

The  records  of  four  experienced  fencers  are  given.  Ac- 
customed as  they  are  to  use  foil  in  right  hand,  they  were  little 
more  skillful  with  the  left  hand  than  the  unpracticed.  The 
author  remarks  that  the  "form"  of  the  right  and  left  sides  was 
very  alike,  and  that  the  "fencers  themselves  were  surprised  to 
find  it  s©  easy  to  lunge  lefthanded. " 

(^)  Group  IV  practiced  the  right  hand  in  grasping  a  stick, 
but  the  transfer  was  of  a  negative  sort,  there  being  losses. 
This  may  be  due,  says  Davis,  to  the  fact  that  "the  muscles 
learned  how  to  contract  properly  for  pressure  of  the  cylindrical 
stick,  but  gained  no  advantage  from  this  for  gripping  the 
dynanometer. " 

"F.  was  a  strong,  healthy  man,  a  trained  and  skilled  gym- 
nast. During  21-2  weeks  practice — in  tapping  with  right 
foot — he  was  not  able  to  make  any  marked  gain.  He  himself 
said,  'If  I  try  to  hurry  too  much,  my  foot  stops  almost 
altogether.'  His  gymnastic  work  had  so  developed  his  ability 
to  send  down  to  large  muscles  immense  amounts  of  stimuli  for 
action,  that  for  a  test  involving  small  muscles  he  could  not 
become  an  expert.''  (") 

^W.  W.  Davis,  Vale  Studies  in  Psychology,  Vol.  VI. 

2W.  W.  Davis,  Vale  Studies  in  Psychology,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  75. 

^Davis,  Vale  Studies  in  Psychology,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  Si. 


38  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

Of  two  subjects,  one  with  much  previous  training,  the 
other  the  reverse,  the  former  gained  in  skill  with  a  new  instru- 
ment much  more  rapidly,  as  the  table  shows.  (^) 

I  St  final        2nd  final        Average 
Previously  trained  10.48%         i4-36%  12.42% 

Not  previously  trained  -1.27%  2.50%  .61% 

On  classifying  subjects  beforehand  as  phlegmatic  and  ner- 
vous, Davis  found  that  a  certain  form  of  exercise  had  more 
effect  on  one  class  than  another.  Observe  the  following 
table  :(2) 

The  effects  of  this  sort  of  practice  on  one  person  are  indicated 
here: 

I  st  final         2nd  final         Average 

First,  light  practice  2.78  .24  1.51 

Second,  vigorous  practice  12.04  6.85  9.42 

The  following  table  indicates  two  things  :  first,  the  transfer 

from   the   practiced  to   the  unpracticed   hand ;  and,   second,  the 

difference  in  the  amount  of  transfer  as  produced  by  vigorous  and 

light  practice.     The  ergograph  was  used  to  secure  the  practice. 

Distance  weight      Distance.     Gain.    Distance      Gain 

was  lifted  in         after  3  wks.  after  7  wks.     over 

beginning.  of  practice  further  ist 

(hard).  light  final 

practice. 

Left  hand      1341  1488  11%         i757  18% 

Right  hand    1316  1492  13%         I54i  3% 

(not  practiced) 

Note  that  though  right  hand   gained  much  in  first  effort,   it 

did  not  at  second.     "This  fact  proves  that  the  unused   does  not 

always  get   a  share   in  the   benefits  of  exercise.      One   side,  by 

long  continued  practice,  may   become  over-developed,   while  the 

strength  of  the  symmetrical  muscles  on  the  other  side  may  even 

be  diminished.  "(^) 

Joteyko  fatigued   right  hand   by   exercise   with  ergograph, 
and  finally  secured  pressure  records  with   dynamometer  for  both 
1  Davis,  Yale  Studies  in  Psychology^  Vol.  VIII,  p.  92. 
■■^Davis,  Yale  Studies  in  Psychology,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  93. 
^Davis,  Yale  Studies  in  Psychology,  VIII,  p.  100. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  39 

hands,  as  was  also  done  at  first.  There  was  3.decrease  inactivity 
of  left  hand  about  equal  to  20%.  He  concludes  "the  decrease 
in  the  unused  hand  was  caused  by  the  loss  of  energy  in  the 
cerebral  enters. "(') 

Davis  with  the  dynamometer  tested  both  hands,  then  prac- 
ticed one  of  them.  About  half  of  the  fifty  subjects  trained  one 
hand,  and  the  remainder  trained  the  other.  There  was  a  gain  of 
8.06%  for  the  men  with  the  trained  hand,  and  an  average  gain 
of  9.92%  for  the  untrained.  For  the  women,  there  was  a  direct 
gain  of  transference  of  5.84%.  There  was  a  transfer  effect  for 
all  the  men  but  one;  for  the  women,  six  failed  to  gain  at  all,  and 
five  lost  somewhat. ''C^) 

(*)The  left  biceps  and  right  abductor  indices  of  two  sub- 
jects, R.  and  W.,  were  trained.  The  gain  for  W.  was  26%  ;  for 
R-i  43%.  But  also  the  left  abductor  which  was  not  exercised 
showed  a  gain  of  100%  for  W.,  and  40%  for  R.  The  gain  in  the 
right  biceps,  "the  most  remote  anatomically,"  was  correspond, 
ingly  less— 8%  for  W.  and  32%  for  R.  Other  experiments  were 
made  by  training  the  right  abductor  indices,  with  an  effect  of 
52%  gain  for  W.  and  45%  for  R.  ;  and  left  biceps,  of  2%  for 
W.,  and  4%  for  R.  So  that  "it  appears  that  the  accessory 
muscles  of  one  side  gain  approximately  as  much  from  the  exer- 
cise of  the  corresponding  muscles  of  the  opposite  side  as  from 
the  exercise  of  the  fundamental  muscles  of  the  same  side.  That 
is  to  say,  the  diffused  motor  discharge  from  one  side  to  the 
other  is  as  great  as  that  from  the  shoulder  center  to  the  finger 
center."  For  example,  "the  left  abductor  had  no  training, 
and  shows  a  total  gain  throughout  the  entire  series  of  about 
300%."  "Also  it  seems  certain  that  the  exercise  of  any  muscle 
reacts  upon  all  related  muscles,  which  is  to  say  that  diffusion 
takes  place  in  both  inward  and  outward  directions.'' 

The  right  hand  and  left  were  both  tested  for  keeping  up 
three  balls.  Then  the  training  for  the  right  was  continued  until 
great  skill  was  reached, when  the  left  was  tried  again.   No  tables 

'Davis,  Vale  Studies  in  Psychology^  VIII,  p.  104. 

^Davis,  Yale  Studies  in  Psychology y  VIII,  p.  72. 

^Wissler  and  Richardson,  Psychological  Review ^  VII,  p.  29. 


40  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

are  given,  only  the  curves,  which  show:  (i)  "That  the  record 
for  the  left  hand  was  in  all  cases  higher  than  the  preliminary 
test,  never  in  one  case  dropping  to  it."  (2)  "All  the  subjects 
made  a  better  record  with  their  untrained  left  hand,  when 
practice*^' was  'finally  begun,  than  they  had  been  able  to  do  with 
the  right  hand  at  the  beginning. ''(^) 

"Volkmann  found  that  six  months  of  regular  practice  in  dis- 
tinguishing small  visual  distances,  in  which  his  eye  gained 
remarkable  power,  had  no  effect  whatever  on  his  ability  to  dis- 
tinguish small  tactual  differences.  "(^) 

A  Miss  B.  was  required  to  insert  a  pointed  iron  in  a  series 
of  holes  of  diminishing  size.  She  did  it  first  with  the  left  hand, 
giving  50'^  of  successful  trials.  Then  training  with  the  right 
hand  so  that  the  number  of  successful  trials  rose  from  60  to  88, 
the  left  hand  was  again  given  its  turn,  showing  ^6'^'Jc  of  success- 
ful trials.  C) 

That  the  chief  element  here  is  the  attention  is  shown  by  the 
lowering  percentage  if  there  were  any  distractions,  and  (second) 
if  the  attention  was  focused  on  the  movement  rather  than  on  the 
hole.     "The  training  was  psychical  rather  than  physical." 

By  using  a  dynamometer,  the  pressure  by  the  left  hand 
arose  from  29.6^/^  on  March  7  to  42.3%  on  March  20;  while  the 
practice  was  all  with  the  right  hand,  whose  strength  arose  from 
28.8  to  48.6  in  the  same  time.(*) 

Simon  noted  the  curious  fact  that  practice  in  judging  with 
botheyes  brought  with]  it  but  little  betterment  in  judging 
with  either  eye  alone;  but  when  the  left  eye  had  been  practiced 
by  itself  to  its  maximum  powers,  then  the  right  eye  also, 
although  itself  unpracticed,  was  nevertheless  found  to  have 
advanced  to  its  maximum. 

iSwift,  American  Journal  of  Psychology ,  XIV,  p.  201. 
^Swift,  American  Journal  of  Psychologv,  XIV,  p.  220. 
^Scripture,  Yale  Psychological  Studies,  Vo\.  II,  p.  114. 
♦Scripture,  Yale  Psychological  Studies  ^Vo\.  II,  p.  118. 
'^Popular  Science  Monthly,  Vol.  56,  p.  589. 


120 

2CX 

3-9 

7-1 

3.8 

6.6 

FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  41 

"Practice  with  the  left  hand  helped  the  right  hand  also,"(^) 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 

40 
Before  3.  i 

After  .07 

"There  is  no  appreciable  improvement  at  the  rates  for 
which  the  left  hand  had  not  improved.  These  results  show  (i) 
that  the  transference  from  one  side  to  the  other — a  transference 
which  has  been  established  in  other  investigations  as  taking 
place  from  the  right  side  to  the  left — also  takes  place  from  the 
left  to  the  right ;  and  (2)  that  it  is  not  mere  practice  that  has 
this  effect,  but  only  successful  practice. '' 

From  these  experiments  on  cross-education,  the  following 
may  be  said  :  There  may  be  a  carrying  over  of  training  effects 
from  one  side  of  the  body  to  the  homologous  members  on  the 
other  side ;  these  effects  may  be  either  in  the  form  of  skill,  or 
force.  In  some  cases  there  is  no  transfer;  in  some  a  negative 
transfer,  or  loss.  There  are  indications  that  the  "common  ele- 
ment" is  quite  as  much  mental  (knowledge  of  method  or  direc- 
tion;  attention),  or  objective,  the  likeness  of  the  external  situa- 
tion, as  that  it  is  physical.  The  failures  and  losses  are  as  im. 
portant  for  a  correct  theory  as  the  success. 

Correlation. — The  chief  evidence  which  anti-formalists  bring 
forward  is  the  seennngl}r'^convancTngo^ 

en£esainong^^opT£^^a^^  'gooa 

memory  for  tones,  but  a  poor  one  for  colors,  one  who  believes 
in  a  "memory  faculty''  might  consistently  explain  this  varia- 
tion as  due  to  the  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  stuff— tones 
being  easier  to  retain  than  colors.  But  if  that  were  the  explana- 
tion, all  people  should  be  better  in  committing  tones  to  mem- 
ory than  in  memorizing  colors;  and  increasmg  one's  skill  in  do. 
ing  one  thing  should  give  a  corresponding  increase  in  doing  the 
other.  To  prove  this  false  seems  a  work  of  supererogation,  so 
plenteous  are   the  human    refutations  all   about  us.     There  are, 

^Woodworth,  Psy.  Rev,,  Monograph  Series  3,  p.  104. 


^t 


42  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

however,  as  is  well  known,  studies  by  Wissler,  (^)  Aikins,  (^) 
Thorndike  and'others,(*)  which,  even  after  their  results  are  cor- 
rected for  attenuation,  as  shown  by  Spearman,  (*)  show  the 
thorough-going  lack  of  complete  correlation. 

Data  from  the  Education  of  Extreme  Types .  Some  side  con- 
tribution bearing  on  this  problem  comes  from  the  education  of 
the  extreme  types.  When  we  are  dealing  with  the  average  man 
who  is  fairly  well  equipped  with  the  abilities  society  demands, 
it  is  easy  enough  to  make  assertions  both  ways.  On  the  one 
side  the  formalist  can  point  out  the  numerous  men  who  have 
taken  the  straight  old  line  college  course  and  who  have  gone 
into  the  most  diverse  occupations  and  succeeded,  and  say,  "See 
what  his  Latin,  mathematics,  etc.,  did  for  him;  and  further,  he 
will  point  to  the  tradesman,  the  artisan,  the  clerk,  who  has  not 
had  the  intellectual  training  given  by  the  college  course.  His 
opponent,  some  Herbartian,  perhaps,  will  reply  that  the  first 
men  had  such  native  talents  that  they  would  have  succeeded  in 
any  case;  that  they  went  to  college  as  they  wore  certain  clothes, 
because  it  was  the  thing  to  do  among  their  set,  and  that  since 
all,  or  most  all,  bright  youths  aspired  to  go  to  college,  naturally 
enough  the  colleges  produced  great  men. 

But  it  is  different  with  the  abnormal  classes,  where  the 
effort  of  the  schools  is  to  make  them  normal,  and  where  the 
efforts  are  more  or  less  measurable.  As  is  known,  idiots  and 
young  criminals  were  until  quite  recently  considered  hopeless 
and  treated  accordingly.  However,  men  with  the  opinion  of 
Dr.  Seguin(^)  have  held  that  many  such  seemingly  hopeless 
cases  were  merely  instances  of  undeveloped  conditions,  and  as 
Beneke  had  held  in  the  early  part  of  the  century,  so  conceived 
of  education   as  the   removal  of  hindrances,  the  opening   up  of 

'^Psychological  Review^  Monograph  Supplement  No, 
'^Psychological  Review,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  374  ff. 

^Columbia  Contributions  to  Philosophy,   Psychology,  and  Education, 
Vol.  IX,  passim. 

^American  Journal  of  Psychology,  Jan.,  1904. 

^Rooper,  Educational  Studies  and  Addresses,  ch.  I. 
Seguin  "On  Idiocy." 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  43 

avenues,  the  removal  of  limitations.  So  Dr.  Seguin  began  by 
merely  exercising  the  limp,  flabby  hand  of  the  imbecile,  mas- 
saging the  muscles,  moving  the  arm  up  and  down.  Then  he 
gave  the  children  incentives  at  first  for  doing  physical  move- 
ments. From  these  simple  bodily  processes,  the  steps  are  to 
easy  mental  requirements.  So  finally  the  clouded  and  atrophied 
tracts  become  open,  both  for  the  reception  of  sense  stimuli  and 
transmission  of  motor  impulses.  Often  there  would  be  freedom 
of  innervation,  but  control  would  be  wanting.  "The  eyeballs 
would  roll  from  side  to  side  with  a  short  uneasy  motion,  and  the 
range  of  their  movements  was  small."  By  selection  of  proper 
exercises,  these  irregularities  were  often  brought  under  control. 
In  this  way  a  higher  intellectual  life  was  made  possible.  The 
transfer  was  in  giving  even  what  normal  abilities  the  child  had, 
a  fair  opportunity  and  in  putting  some  links  in  the  chain  of  ac- 
complishments. "Arrested  development  must  be  taken  to  mean 
unequal  arrests."  "There  are  ten  per  cent  of  imbeciles  above 
the  median  in  memory,  and  nine  per  cent  in  intelligence 
tests.  "(0  Johnson(^)  points  out  that  retentiveness  is  not  a 
prominent  factor  in  feeblemindedness.  More  than  15%  of  im. 
beciles  are  equal  to  average  children  in  tested  mental  traits. 

These  quotations  from  studies  on  imbeciles,  who  differ  from 
the  average  person  only  in  degree,  support  two  assertions  :— 
First,  that  "the  normal  intellect  depends  upon  the  interaction, 
and  proper  co-ordination  of  various  parts  of  the  nervous  system," 
which  same  parts  can  be  more  or  less  effectively  put  together  by 
the  processes  of  education;  and,  second,  these  "powers"  -  or 
"faculties"  of  the  weak-minded  are  of  unequal  strength,  and 
show  no  tendency  to  bring  up  the  wanting  faculties  or  abilities. 
To  further  refine  the  first  conclusion,  it  means  two  things :  that 
the  education  of  the  socially  incompetent  consists  in  the  acquire- 
ment of  certain  habits  or  co-ordinations  which  are  of  more  or 
less  general  applicability,  and  will  so  make  them  tolerable  by 
society  and  partially  self-supporting,  and  again  that  these  newly 
formed  habits  and  opened   pathways  make   it  possible   for  their 

^Norsworthy,  The  Psychology  of  Mentally  Deficient  Children. 
2John.son,  Education  of  the  Feeble-Minded. 


44  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

more  normal  capacities,  previously  hemmed  in  and  hampered, 
to  find  expression. 

The  history  of  the  reformation  of  criminals  has  run  a  par- 
allel course  with  that  of  imbeciles.  They  were  judged  to  be  all 
bad,  and  hopelessly  so.  Now,  we  think  with  many,  if  not  all, 
that  both  statements  are  false.  The  phrase  "honor  among 
thieves"  indicates  but  one  of  many  virtues  which  thieves  may 
possess.  Their  feelings  may  be  very  tender  under  certain  excit- 
ing situations,  and  completely  lacking  in  others.  Criminals 
are  often  very  religious,  have  keen  aesthetic  appreciations,  and 
yet  are  morally  insensible.  Their  judgments  and  intuitions  are 
often  very  alert  and  refined  in  one  line,  but  without  efficiency 
in  others.  (^)  Their  courage  is  superb,  often  under  the  most 
terrible  circumstances;  and  under  others,  their  timidity,  fear 
and  cringing  are  despicable.  Heredity  and  training  seem  to 
accentuate  in  them  all  sorts  of  differentiations  in  mental  traits; 
and  their  training  is  often  of  the  hardest  and  most  successful 
sort. 

Nor  are  they  hopeless.  They  seem  so  to  be  under  the 
formal  disciplinist  conception  of  education,  which  makes  them 
dress  alike,  march  in  line,  go  to  bed  and  get  up  at  a  certain 
minute.  The  requirements  in  penitentiaries  are  military: 
minute,  exact,  orderly.  This,  it  is  presumed,  gives  the  prison 
habitues  the  habits  and  ideas  of  accuracy,  promptness,  obe- 
dience, respect,  neatness,  orderliness,  industry.  True  it  is  that 
the  inmates  do  for  years  these  very  commendable  things ;  and  to 
an  onlooker  who  sees  these  men  making  such  records  as  any 
martinet  might  be  proud  of,  the  prison  system  seems  truly  to  be 
a  great  human  reformatory.  But  it  is  only  in  the  seeming;  the 
facts  are  very  different.  Few  of  the  men  are  made  better,  and 
most  of  the  youths  much  worse.  So  now  there  are  coming  into 
existence  such  institutions  as  the  George  Junior  Republic, C^) 
and  the  Elmira  Reformatory  (^),  which  abandon  the  doctrine  of 
formal  discipline  and  so  employ  an  entirely  different  scheme  of 

^Havelock  Ellis,  Criminology.,  ch.  on  Psy.  of  Criminals. 
^George  Junior  Republic,  World's  Work,  Vol.  II,  p.  1296. 
^Winter,  Elmira  Reformatory ,  N.  Y.,  p.  2. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  45 

education.  It  rests  on  two  notions :  first,  the  inmates  are  to 
acquire  the  knewledge  and  ideals  of  the  better  people  of  the 
larger  world  outside,  and  get  the  habits  and  modes  of  action 
which  they  will  need  in  that  larger  life;  second,  to  get  these 
the  prisoners  are  organized  as  far  as  possible  into  a  type  of 
society  at  large,  in  which  the  means,  methods,  motives  and 
rewards  are  duplicates  of  those  which  will  be  needed  when  out 
of  the  prison. 

In  a  word,  on  the  negative  side,  they  have  abandoned  the 
cultivation  of  reason,  of  the  will,  of  the  emotions,  of  the  habits 
of  order,  of  obedience,  etc.,  and  they  train  individuals  to  do  the 
particular  things  they  need  to  do,  to  think  and  feel  in  the  partic- 
ular ways  that  will  be  desirable  for  them,  and  finally  to  know 
the  particular  things  they  need  to  know. 

These  institutions  are  successful  as  the  records  of  the  "grad- 
uates" for  ten  years  show  only  a  very  small  per  cent  that  go 
back  to  their  former  wayward  life. 

New  Experimental  Data 

The  first  experiments  to  be  reported  are  two  on  the  practice 
effects  of  memorizing,  which  were  carried  on,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  method,  in  the  manner  of  those  of  Professor  Wm.  James 
on  this  same  subject,  except  that  the  material  was  more  varied. 
Subject  K's  preliminary  and  final  test  series  were  with  rows  of 
figures,  each  prepared  by  a  different  person,  and  the  practice 
was  on  poetry;  subject 'B's  tests  were  with  names  of  places,  the 
practice  in  poetry. 

First  experiment :  Subject  K.  committed  to  memory  five 
rows  of  figures,  thirty  figures  in  each  row,  at  the  rate  of  one  row 
per  day.  This  was  the  first  test.  The  final  test  was  also  for 
five  days,  one  row  per  day  of  thirty  figures.  The  training  was 
carried  on  for  four  weeks  and  consisted  of  memorizing  sixteen 
lines  per  day  from  "In  Memoriam."  The  data  are  given  with 
curves.     Fig.  I. 

But  one  figure  in  the  first  test  is  as  low  as  the  highest  in 
the  final  test.  The  absolute  difference  in  the  two  series  is  28 
minutes,  or  58%  of  the  time  of  the  first  test.  The  average  sav. 
ing  for  each  trial  is  5.6  minutes  on  an  average   time  of  9.6  min- 


46  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

utes  in  the  first  series.  Furthermore,  the  final  test  does  not 
continue  to  fall  as  if  it  were  part  of  the  practice  curve  started  in 
the  first  test.  It  may  be  that  there  were  certain  figure  combin- 
ations in  the  first  test  which  offered  peculiar  difficulties  to  the 
subject.  Of  such  she  was  unaware,  for  she  felt  no  special 
obstructions  in  one  group  more  than  in  the  other.  No  doubt 
the  habit  of  doing  this  sort  of  mental  work  at  a  certain  period 
each  day,  and  the  passing  away  of  certain  mental  confusions 
which  at  first  operated,  were  large  factors,  possibly  sufficient  to 
account  for  the  difference.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  the  failure  of  Professor  James'  subjects  to  improve 
was  due  to  their  mental  poise  and  "at-homeness"  in  doing  just 
such  work. 

The  more  specific  directions  for  subject  B.  in  the  memory 
test  were  as  follows :  (i)  Write  out  five  lines  of  names  of  places, 
with  fifteen  names  in  each  line,  and  commit  one  line  each  day 
for  five  days.  The  record  for  the  time  was  kept  in  minutes,  and 
will  be  found  with  Figure  2.  (2)  Two  stanzas  of  "Faerie 
Queene"  were  committed  then,  every  day  for  five  weeks,  the 
record  again  being  carefully  kept.  (3)  Again  five  lines  of  names 
of  places,  fifteen  in  each  line,  were  memorized,  at  the  rate  of 
one  line  per  day. 

By  reference  to  Fig.  2,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  work  was 
done  in  a  shorter  time,  the  absolute  difference  being  four  min- 
utes, or  22%  of  the  time  of  the  first  test.  The  first  test  is  too 
brief  to  give,  thinkably,  any  practice  effect  that  would  extend 
over  the  five  weeks  of  interval.  It  is  possible  that  the  reflex 
from  the  learning  of  the  poetry  came  in  the  form  of  a  mental 
preparedness  for  doing  that  kind  of  thing  each  day. 

The  possible  increase  in  the  ability  to  remember  figures, 
could  readily  come  from  the  special  training  in  doing  that  very 
thing  in  so  many  subjcets  of  the  curriculum. 

On  the  whole,  then,  an  increased  eflficiency  has  come  from 
these  four  years.  It  has  been  small  for  the  most  part ;  less  than 
could  be  secured  by  a  few  days  of  direct  training.  So  as  a  by 
product  of  their  particular  courses,  while  it  is  definite  and  pos- 
sibly all  that  could  be  expected,   it  is  almost  negligible. 

The  second  experiment  concerned  the  improvement  brought 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


47 


A. 


B. 


15- 
10- 

-1 

r-j 

1-1 

L-J 

n  P-'" 

n 

— d  u 

S- 

Rql. 


A. 


B. 


L^^-^M_rx 


Ro2; 


Fig.  I.  Improvement  of  memory  for  figures  due  to  practice  in  mem- 
orizing poetry.  Subject  K.  A  shows  the  ability  in  memorizing  figures  (in- 
versely, by  the  time  taken)  before  the  practice  (solid  line)  and  after  the 
practice  (dotted  line).  B  shows  the  course  of  practice  (by  the  time  taken) 
in  memorizing  poetry.  The  times  required  for  learning  30  figures  were  : 
before  practice, 9,  12,  13,  9  and  5  minutes,  after  praciice  4,  5,  5,  2.5  and  4 
minutes.  The  times  required  for  learning  16  lines  of  'In  Memoriam,"  were; 
in  order,  12,  14,  10,  14,  12,  10,  13,  9,  12,  10,  i6,  13,  15,  6,  8,  8,  7,  10,  7,  10,  9,  1 1 
6,  12  II,  II,  9,  6  minutes.  i 

Fig.  2.  A  and  B  mean  the  same  as  in  Fig.  i  except  that  here  the 
record  is  that  of  Subject  B.  The  times  required  for  learning  30  figures 
were:  before  practice,  4,  4,  3,  3  and  4,  after  practice,  4,  3,  2,  3  anci  2.  The 
times  required  for  learning  2  stanzas  of  the  ''Faerie  Queene"  were,  in  order, 
10,  5,  7,  10,  10,  5,  7,  6,  8,  9,  5,  7,  6,  6,  6,  6,  7,  5,  6,  6,  4,  4,  4,  5,  4,  4,  4,  5,  6,  5,  4, 
4,  3,  4,4  minutes. 


48  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

about  in  the  discrimination  of  length  by  the  eye  as  a  result  of 
practice  in  discriminating  length  by  the  knowledge  gained  from 
arm  movements.  There  were  two  subjects,  S.  and  D. 

The  practice  with  both  subjects  was  done  with  the  follow- 
ing instrument :  Into  a  narrow  upright  frame  were  fixed  two 
parallel  horizontal  steel  rods,  about  two  feet  long  and  one  and 
one-half  inches  apart.  On  the  lower  rod  were  two  spools  fixed 
immovably  at  25  cm,  apart,  and  on  the  upper  rod  were  two 
spools  which  were  freely  movable.  Subject  vS.,  being  blind, 
folded,  passed  the  index  finger  between  the  fixed  spools,  without 
touching  the  rod ;  and  having  thus  secured  the  space-image, 
adjusted  the  upper  spools  as  nearly  as  he  could  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance. In  half  of  the  cases  of  each  day's  practice,  the  movable 
spools  were  shifted  to  a  distance  greater  than  the  norm;  and  in 
half,  to  a  distance  less  than  the  norm,  preparatory  for  their  ad- 
justment by  the  subject.  After  each  adjustment,  the  upper 
spools  being  held,  the  lower  ones,  by  means  of  a  slight  contri- 
vance, were  brought  up  against  the  upper  ones,  so  that  the  sub- 
ject S.  couldy^^/how  much  of  an  error  he  had  made.  The  plan 
with  subject  D.  differed  only  in  that  he  touched  the  rod  in  the 
passage  between  the  limits,  thus  getting  both  a  motor  and  a 
tactile  basis  for  judgment. 

For  the  preliminary  and  final  tests  for  both  subjects  D.  and 
S.  the  judgments  were  on  the  same  sort  of  material,  though  the 
apparatus  was  not  the  same  in  both  cases.  A  single  black  strip, 
25  cm.  in  length  was  exposed  for  a  definite  time;  following  this, 
another  of  indefinite  length  was  exposed,  and  then  modified 
until  the  subject  pronounced  it  equal  in  length  to  the  norm,  25 
cm.  In  half  the  cases  the  indefinite  strip  was  longer  to  start 
with  than  the  norm,  and  half,  shorter  than  the  norm. 

In  both  practice  and  test  series,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the 
norm  was  of  the  same  length,  the  judgment  in  the  former  being 
wihout  any  help  from  the  eye,   in  the  latter  with  such  help. 

The  measurements  are  given  in  Table  i. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


(fl'O 


M5  -5  3  « 


!S  *^  *> 

I         4)  CO    ■fO    •<♦■  N   t^  t>. 
3   1>    *..    ^   —    .  .         ^   ^ 

a 
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so  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

These  figures  represent  the  average  of  five  different  records, 
that  is,  the  actual  data  consisted  of  five  times  as  much  as  is 
represented  in  the  tables.  The  practice  effects  m  the  practice 
series  are  not  very  great,  though  more  pronounced  in  S.  than  in 
D.  One  reason  for  this  may,  be  that  both  subjects  were  skilled 
experimental  psychologists,  who  as  students  and  teachers  had 
drilled  themselves  into  many  forms  of  movement.  This  is 
further  suggested  by  the  curve  rising  rapidly  at  first,  which  prob- 
ably represents  their  period  of  getting  acquainted  with  a  novel 
form  of  apparatus.  This  acquaintance  being  secured,  actual 
physical  dexterity  grew  slightly.  Another  reason  for  this  low 
degree  of  increase  was  the  hardness  of  the  test.  The  fact  of  be. 
ing  blindfolded  added  confusion  by  breaking  out  of  the  chain  an 
ordinary  associate  in  judgments  of  extension.  Then,  the  prin- 
ciple of  judgment  with  S.  was  very  unusual;  viz.,  deciding  a 
length  on  amount  of  space  passed  though^  without  touching 
anything.  It  was  so  wearing  on  the  subject  that  it  could  be 
kept  up  but  a  few  minutes  at  a  time.  This  weariness  was  not 
so  great  with  subject  D.,  who  used  the  ordinary  means  of  touch 
in  measuring  the  length. 

Concerning  the  main  issue,  the  result  of  the  experiment  is 
negative.  One  subject  showed  improvement  in  the  tests  after 
training ;  the  other  was,  to  an  equal  degree,   inferior. 

The  third  set  of  data  are  figures  showing  the  improvement 
after  four  years'  college  education  in  certain  mental  capacities. 
These  figures  are  derived  from  the  tests  made  at  the  Columbia 
University  Psychological  Laboratory,  on  students  when  they 
entered  as  freshmen,  and  again  on  the  same  students  as  seniors. 
This  material  is  fully  described  by  Dr.  Clark  Wissler  in  "The 
Correlation  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests.  "(^)  Those  selected 
for  comparison  in  this  study  are  the  tests  on  (i)  perception  of 
pitch,  (2)  perception  of  letters  at  different  distances  with  (a) 
right  eye,  (b)  left  eye;  (3)  reaction  time;  (4)  rate  of  perception 
in  marking  the  letter  "A"  in  a  prepared  page  of  mixed  letters; 
(5)  auditory  memory  for  figures;  (6)  memory  for  a  simple  pas- 
sage; (7)  quickness  in  naming  different  colors. 

'^Psychological Review,  Mon.  Sup.,  No.  16,  p.  4. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  •     51 

In  discrimination  of  pitch  there  was  a  slight  gain,  there 
being  57  cases  of  improvement,  32  of  deterioration,  9  of  no 
change,  a  median  gain  of  i  point,  which  means  a  reduction  of 
the  amount  of  error  by  about  1 5  per  cent.  The  details  are  given 
in  Table  2. 

In  sharpness  of  vision,  there  was  no  demonstrable  change, 
though  (counting  both  eyes'  records)  there  were  I37  cases  of 
improvement  to  78  of  deterioration,  71  cases  showed  no  change, 
bringing  the  median  to  o  gain.  The  average  of  the  senior 
records  is  slightly  superior.  The  details  are  given  in  Tables  3 
and  4. 

In  reaction  time  there  was  a  slight  gain,  ^^  of  the  senior 
records  being  shorter,  61  longer  than  the  early  records,  and  2 
being  equal.  The  median  gain  was  ,006  sec.  or  roughly,  4  per 
cent.     The  details  are  given  in  Table  5. 

In  the  rate  of  marking  A's.  on  a  printed  sheet  of  capital 
letters  there  was  clear  improvement  of  roughly  10  per  cent.  If 
only  those  cases  are  taken  where  the  number  of  errors  in  the 
early  equals  that  in  the  late  test,  the  shortening  of  time  measures 
improvement.  The  result  of  the  calculation  is  a  median  dim- 
inution of  time  of  11  seconds.  The  details  are  given  in  Table "6. 

In  auditory  memory  for  figures  there  was  no  demonstrable 
change,  though  there  were  60  cases  of  improvement  to  38  of 
deterioration,  and  the  average  of  the  senior  records  was  slightly 
better.  The  median  tendency  was,  however,  to  no  improve, 
ment.  The  details  are  given  in  Table  7,  in  which  the  upper 
and  lower  of  each  pair  of  figures  represent  respectively  the  fresh- 
man and  senior  records  of  one  man. 

In  memory  for  a  simple  passage,  there  was  no  improvement. 
Sixteen  did  better,  15  worse,  and  8  the  same  in  senior  as  in 
freshman  year.     For  details  see  Table  8. 

In  naming  colors  there  was  a  median  gain  of  11  seconds  or 
roughly  15  percent.  22  individuals  improved  and  only  5  got 
worse.     For  details  see  Table  9. 

One  of  the  cases  in  which  improvement  might  be  rationally 
expected  was  that  of  so-called  logical  memory,  or  the  memory  of 
a  simple  passage.  However,  it  was  there  the  very  least,  the 
movement  being  in  the  positive  direction,   but  within   the  zero 


52 


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FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


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FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  59 

limit.  Presumably  the  increase  which  the  four  years  of  college 
work  has  given  is  along  some  special  line  or  interest.  This 
agrees  with  the  tests  on  this  same  point  on  men  of  science 
carried  on  January,  1905,  Philadelphia,  at  the  last  session  of 
the  American  Association  of  Science,   by  Mr.  F.  G.  Bruner. 

Men  of  Science,   Logical  Memory  3.55  points  out  of  8. 

College  Freshmen,     •'  "        4.45       "       "     "   8. 

As  is  seen,  these  famous  men  cannot  remember  the  thought 
of  the  few  sentences  given  in  the  test  better  than  beginning 
college  students. 

The  only  clear  gains  in  the  four  years  are  in  the  speed  of 
the  ability  to  pick  out  and  mark  the  letter  "A"  among  other 
letters,  and  to  recognize  and  name  a  series  of  different  colors. 
Both  imply  added  control  of  perceptive  and  motor  connections, 
one  in  the  eye-hand  complex,  and  the  other  in  the  word  area. 
The  second  test  was  only  in  a  small  degree  a  test  of  the  quick- 
ness of  color  discrimination ;  the  hesitancy  was  over  the  name 
for  the  color.  There  was  such  a  quickening,  however,  as  was 
referred  to  above. 

The  fourth  series  of  experiments  shows  the  result  of  special 
practice  in  discriminating  different  saturations  of  blue  upon 
other  sense  powers  in  the  case  of  sixteen  children  from  the 
Speyer  School  of  Teachers  College.  They  were  of  average  in- 
telligence, and  none  of  them  had  had  any  special  training  in 
color.  They  were  about  eleven  years  old.  A  Milton.Bradley 
color  wheel  was  used,  with  a  set  of  the  larger  and  smaller  disks. 
Two  of  the  smaller  disks,  of  different  colors,  e.  g.,  blue  and 
white,  were  adjusted  so  that  there  was  a  fixed  per  cent  of  the 
blue  and  of  the  white.  The  outer  disks  were  of  the  same  colors 
but  were  shiftable,  so  that  the  amount  of  blue  could  be  increased 
or  diminished  at  will.  When  the  disks  revolved  the  inner  disk 
presented  a  blue  of  one  degree  of  saturation,  and  the  outer  disk 
another.  The  amount  of  this  difference  was  indicated  on  a 
scale-disk.  The  children  recorded  their  judgments  with  an 
'T"  or  "O"  according  as  the  saturation  of  the  inner  disk,  or 
outer  disk,  was  greater,  or  with  an  "S, "  if  it  was  the  same  for 
both. 

The   preliminary   and   final   tests   were    in   discriminating 


6o  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

different  mixtures  (i)  of  red  and  white,  (2)  of  yellow  and  green, 
(3)  of  orange  and  black.  There  was  also,  a  preliminary  test  in 
distinguishing  differences  in  pitch. 

Finally  these  children  were  tested  in  discrimination  of 
length,  in  marking  A's  and  in  accuracy  of  movement. 

The  practice  was  continued  on  Tuesdays  and  Thursdays  at 
2  p.m.,  tor  a  half  hour,  through  the  period  from  October  to 
March,  and  was  done  with  the  blue  and  white  disks.  In  all 
this  color  work,  the  method  of  minimal  gradations  was  employed, 
since  it  permits  a  class  experiment.  The  children  occupied  the 
same  relative  positions  to  the  color  disks  through  the  series  and 
as  far  as  possible,  the  light  was  maintained  the  same  by  use  of 
shades. 

The  training  with  the  Speyer  School  children  was  very 
definite,  and  gives  some  very  clear  results.  With  the  boys,  the 
range  within  which  the  two  tints  of  red  were  judged  the  same, 
was  from  2.3  <^  to  4. 5*^  atthefirsttest  (See  Table  10).  The  2.3'=' 
as  opposed  to  the  4.5®  represent  the  practice  effects  that  came 
in  during  these  preliminary  trials.  When  these  disks  are  re- 
turned for  the  final  test,  the  range  is  from.  6*="  to  .9°,  (A.  D.  .2 
to  .4).  This  difference  can  hardly  be  considered  to  be  a  contin- 
uation of  the  rapidly  descending  first  line,  for,  first  it  starts  in 
much  lower  (1.9 '^),  and,  second,  with  the  brief  experimental 
period  at  first,  it  was  not  likely  that  the  habit  should  have  per- 
sisted through  four  months  of  complete  inattention  to  these  par- 
ticular colors.  Again,  the  first  line  is  a  falling  one,  the  last 
figures  not  indicating  that  the  level  of  skill  has  been  reached, 
and  that  it  would  fall  further  may  be  inferred  from  what  happened 
with  the  practice  curve  for  blue  and  white,  which  likewise 
started  in  at  4.5  '^  and  fell  to  an  average  level  of  i.  '^.  But  the 
second  line  is  not  a  falling  line,  seeming  to  be  simply  the  con- 
tinuation of  a  level  line  of  skill. 

These  same  statements  are  perfectly  duplicated  in  the  case 
of  the  girls  on  the  same  test  (See  Table  10);  and  for  the  boys, 
with  yellow  and  green  (See  Table  10).  The  only  variation  from 
this  in  the  other  two  cases — girls  with  yellow  and  green  (See 
Table  10),  and  boys  with  black  and  orange  (See  Table  10),  is 
that  the   first  curve    indicates  that   practice  effects   had  not  ap- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


6i 


THE 


TABLE  lo 
INFLUENCE    OF  SPECIAL  TRAINING 
CRIMINATION 
Tests  with  red  and  white 


IN   SENSE    DIS- 


Boys.  Before  training 
After  training 

Girls.  Before  training 
After  training 


Boys. 


Girls. 


Boys. 
Girls. 


Boys. 
Girls. 


Before  training 
After  training 
Before  training 
After  training 


Avs.  4.5 

A.  D's.  I.I 

Avs.  .6 

A.  D's.  .4 

Avs.  3.5 

A.  D's  i.o 

Avs.  .48 

A.  D's.  .2 

Tests  with  yellow  and  green 


4-5 

'•5 

•7 

,2 

o 
5 

75 
■3 


Avs. 
A.  D's. 
Avs. 
A.  D's 
Avs. 
A.  D's 
Avs. 
A.  D's 


6.7 
1.0 
2.0 
1.0 

5-0 
1.8 
2.8 
•9 


Boys.  Before  training 
After  training 

Girls.  Before  training 
After  training 


Tests  with  black  and  orange 


Avs 
A.  D's. 
Avs. 
A.  D's. 
Avs. 
A.  D's. 
Avs. 
A.  D's. 


3-0 

•7 
1.2 

.6 
2.7 

.8 
1.8 

•5 


2.8 


3-0 
1.2 

•9 

•3 
4.2 
1. 1 

.65 

.2 


4.0 
1.0 
1-3 
•5 
5.0 
1.2 

1-7 
.6 


34 
•5 


Tests  with  pitch 

6.: 


Before  training  Avs. 

A.  D's.  2.0 
After  training  Avs.  4.6 

A.  D's.  I.I 
Before  training         Avs.  5.4 

A.  D's.  4.0 
After  training  Avs.  4.5 

A.  D's         1.4 

Practice  series  with  blue  and  white 

2.7     2.6     2.4     2.0  1.8      .83     '^       '^- 

1.4  1.35  -9   -8   .6   .7 

4.5  3.0  2.0  2.3  1.7   .9 

.7   .55  i-i   -84  -7   -7 
.6   .6   .4   .7 


4.0 
3-0 
4-3 
•9 
7-2 
5-0 
5-2 
1-3 


4-5 
2.0 

2-3 

•9 
6.0 

4-5 
3-2 
0-7 


5-1 
1.8 

3-0 
.8 
6.4 
3-3 
3-2 
1.0 


3-2 
1.0 


3-4 
•9 


3-0 
.8 

51 
I.I 

1-7 

•5 


6.6 

3-0 

3-0 

.8 

3-6 
2.7 
3-4 
I.I 


Avs. 

Avs. 


.6 
I.I 
I.I 

•9 


1.6 

•7 


1.25 

•9 
.65 

•5 


1.06 
.8 
.65 
•5 


2-3 

0.9 


2.4 
•9 


3-0 
2.0 
4.0 
1.5 

3-2 

0.8 

5-3 
1.2 


62  FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 

peared  at  all  in  the  beginning,  thus  more  completely  isolating 
the  last  curve.  With  the  last  curves— with  girls  with  black  and 
orange  (See  Table  lo),  is  the  only  case  where  there  was  a 
noticeable  practice  effect  in  the  final  test.  But  here  as  in  all 
the  others,  the  lines  are  clearly  separate  throughout,  and  from 
their  form  do  not  indicate  that  one  is  a  continuation  of  the 
other. 

The  average  deviations  for  each  case  are  given  and  in  all 
cases  are  so  low  as  to  indicate  the  high  reliability  of  the  figures, 
and  the    general  uniformity   of  experience  for   all  the  children. 

The  practice  curves  (See  Figs.  3  and  4, p. 65)  present  consider- 
able irregularities,  but  if  it  is  observed  that  the  ordinate  unit  is 
i-io^,  these  become  smaller.  During  the  practice  with  the 
blue-white  series,  the  relative  amounts  of  each  were  often 
changed,  so  that  no  certain  tint  could  come  to  stand  as  a 
standard  "same."  But  such  changes  in  the  sorts  of  blue  to  be 
judged  did  not  modify  noticeably  the  falling  line,  or  the  level 
line  of  skill.  In  brief,  the  ability  to  discriminate  certain  tints 
of  blue  was  easily  applied  to  other  tints  of  the  same  color. 

The  indications  are  that  the  practice  was  carried  on  longer 
than  was  necessary  to  reach  the  skill  limit,  but  the  extended 
time  threw  the  test  series  farther  apart,  and  to  that  degree 
obviates  the  criticism  to  which  so  many  tests  on  this  subject  are 
open,  namely  that  the  increase  in  skill  was  due  to  the  training 
within  the  test  series  itself. 

Before  the  practice  with  the  blue- white  series  was  begun, 
and  just  after  it  was  closed,  a  test  was  made  of  the  range  within 
which  the  children  could  distinguish  the  pitch  of  two  tones. 
The  Gilbert  Tone.tester  was  employed  in  the  experiment.  F  sharp 
was  taken  as  the  norm,  and  the  method  employed,  that  of 
minimal  gradations.  As  the  figures  (See  Table  10)  present  it, 
the  sharpness  went  from  a  range  of  4.4  points  at  the  first  test — 
each  point  representing  an  eighth  of  the  distance  from  F  to  F 
sharjD,  or  F  sharp  to  G— to  one  of  3. 5  at  the  last  test  with  the  boys, 
or  a  gain  of  20%  ;  and  from  5. 3  points  to  4.  i  points  for  the  girls,  or 
a  gain  of  about  23%.  One  thing  can  be  said :  that  the  improve- 
ment in  the  discrimination  of  pitch  is  not  at  all  com. 
mensurate  with  that  in  the  color  field.     It  is  not,  however,  tena- 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  63 

ble  to  explain  it  as  totally  due  to  the  ordinary  singing  exercises 
of  the  school  that  went  on  within  the  interim.  Furthermore, 
the  tones  presented  such  difficulties  that  there  was  little  practice 
effect,  within  either  one  of  the  series  taken  separately,  so  that 
the  increase  in  skill  must  come  from  a  source  outside  of  tone  in- 
fluences. It  may  be  in  part  due  to  the  actual  physiological 
development  of  the  sensorium ;  but  the  amount  of  the  difference 
is  far  too  large  for  the  growth  of  a  four  months'  period. 

The  average  deviations  fc^r  both  boys  and  girls  are  large  and 
irregular,  especially  for  the  girls,  in  the  first  cases;  but  in  the 
last  cases,  they  are  small,  and  much  more  regular,  the  A.  D. 
of  the  average  deviations  for  the  boys  being  .2%,  and  .3%  for 
the  girls. 

The  fifth  experiment  was  conducted  in  the  following 
manner:  On  a  drum  which  revolved  at  a  given  rate,  was  placed 
a  series  of  parallel  lines,  which  were  exposed  in  succession, 
through  a  slit  in  a  large  card  board.  The  alternate  lines  were 
the  norm,  10  cm.  in  length;  the  intervening  ones  differed  from 
the  norm  by  amounts  ranging  from  one  to  ten  mm.  By  the 
method  of  right  and  wrong  cases,  the  threshold  of  difference 
was  obtained.  This  was  followed  by  the  practice  series  running 
through  two  months,  four  times  per  week.  The  same  drum 
was  used  with  the  comparison  lines  covered  up;  then  the  norms 
only  were  exposed  through  the  slit.  By  a  mechanism  attached 
to  a  motor,  a  wide  ribbon  of  paper  was  made  to  move  continu- 
ously between  an  upper  and  lower  surface.  In  the  upper  was 
a  long  opening  large  enough  to  move  a  pencil  point  freely, 
transversely  to  the  direction  of  the  moving  paper.  The  subject, 
then,  when  the  norm  appeared  in  view,  endeavored  to  duplicate 
it,  in  length,  on  the  slow  moving  paper,  which  immediately 
carried  his  made  line  out  of  view.  So  the  skill  was  largely  due 
to  practice  of  the  motor  sense.  The  preliminary  test  was  again 
given  as  the  final  one.     There  were  two  subjects,   F.  and  W. 

In  order  to  give  a  safe  range  for  judgment,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  sufficient  number  of  judgments  for  each  case,  about  700 
judgments  were  made  in  the  preliminary  series,  using  the 
rpethod  of  right  and  wrong  cases.  When  the  line  was  4  mm. 
longer  than  the  norm,   F.  got   nearly  2590  of  correct  judgments 


64  FORMAL   DISCIPLINE 

in  the  preliminary  test,  and  when  41-2  mm.  long,   he   obtained 
nearly  25%  correct  judgments  in  the  final  test. 

Of  the  approximately  one  thousand  judgments  made  in  the 
practice  series,  the  course  of  improvement  may  be  indicated  by 
a  comparison  of  the  first  fifty  with  the  last  fifty.  The  average 
deviation  from  the  norm  of  10  cm.,  of  the  first  fifty  was  9.0  mm. 
and  the  A.  D.  of  these  deviations,  5.0  mm.  For  the  final  fifty 
cases,  the  average  deviation  from  the  norm  was  i.i  mm.,  with 
the  A.  D.  of  these  deviations  i.  5.  For  subject  W.  there  were 
33  1-3%  correct  judgments  when  line  was  3  mm.  shorter  than 
norm,  and  25%  when  3  mm.  longer  than  norm;  this  in  first 
test  series.  In  the  final  series,  the  judgments  were  correct 
for  4  mm.  longer,  in  a  little  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  cases. 

So,  so  far  as  this  test  is  concerned,  there  was  no  transfer 
of  training  effects,  from  motor  practice  to  visual  practice,  but 
rather  a  loss.  This  may  be  due  to  an  actual  failure  to  make 
the  comparisons  more  accurate,  or  to  reduce  the  variability. 
For  the  first  fifty  cases,  the  average  of  the  deviations  from  the 
norm  was  3.4  mm.  with  an  A.  D.  of  2;  whereas,  for  the  final 
fifty  the  figures  were  4  and  2.  i.  The  subject  was  troubled  by 
fluctuations  of  attention,  the  tendency  to  draw  by  force  of  habit 
and  ignore  the  norm,  and  by  certain  Muller-Lyer  illusions  in 
length  caused  by  the  variation  in  the  relation  of  the  lines  as 
each  appeared,  to  the  sides  of  the  opening. 

However  the  test  itself  is  subject  to  criticism.  First,  sub- 
ject W.  was  at  the  same  time  acting  as  a  subject  in  another  ex- 
periment which  required  judgment  at  sight  on  length  of  lines. 
This  criticism  stands  on  the  question  of  fact,  whether  he  had 
already  reached  the  limit  of  his  capacity.  Subject  F.  likewise 
was  having  in  his  capacity  as  laboratory  director,  much  training 
in  the  same  field.  So  again  the  value  of  the  data  turns  on  the 
same  question  of  physiological  limit. 

But  more  closely  connected  with  the  test  is  the  criticism 
that  the  method  of  right  and  wrong  cases  necessitated  so  many 
judgments  as  probably  to  introduce  extensive,  if  not  fatal 
practice  effects  in  the  test  series. 

The  sixth  experiment  was  with  business  college  students. 
It  is   well   known   that   such   students  are   serious,    that   their 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


65 


increase  in  skill  is  very  great,  that  it  is  measureable,  and  con- 
tinuous, and  that  there  is  little  other  training  obtained  during 
the  period.  So  just  at  entrance,  and  after  three  months'  drill  in 
touch  typewriting,  and  in  shorthand,  the  following  tests  were 
given,  all  but  No.  3  being  done  in  thirty  seconds.  In  No.  i, 
(Fig.  5)  the  A's  were  to  be  marked ;  in  No.  2,  (Fig.  6)  the 
maze  was  to  be  traced,  the  distance  and  number  of  touches  on 
the  sides  being  taken  in  consideration;  in  No.  3,  (Fig.  7)  the 
lines  were  to  be  bisected,  and  one  drawn  at  the  bottom  of  paper 
as  long  as  the  one  at  the  top;  in  No.  4,  (Fig  8)  the  dots  were 
to  be  marked. 


^ir 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Figs.  3  and  4.  The  course  of  practice  in  discriminating  blues.  The 
height  of  the  line  represents  the  inaccuracy  of  discrimination  by  the  in- 
crease in  the  blue  required  (in  tenths  of  a  degree).  The  different  practice 
periods  are  recorded  from  left  to  right  in  the  time  order  in  which  they  oc- 
curred.    Fig.  3  is  for  boys;  Fig.  4  is  for  girls. 


66  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

OYKFIUDBHTAGDAACDIXAMRPAGQZTAACVAOWLYX 
WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF 
YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL 
JACINEVBGAOFHARPVEJCTOZAPJLEIQWNAHRBUIAS 
SNZMWAAAWHACAXHXOAXTDPUTYGSKGRKVLGKIM 
FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO 
TXWAMOEAKHAOPXZVVCAIRBRZNSOOAQLMDGUSGB 
AKNAAPLPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK 
UPDSHAAOGGHTAMZAQGMTPNURQNXIJEOWYCREJD 
UOLJCCAKSZAUAFERFAWAFZAWXBAAAVHAMBATAD 
KVSTVNAPLILAOXYSJUOVYIVPAAPSDNLKRQAAOJLE 
GAAQYEMPAZNTIBXGAIMRUSAWZAZWXAMXBDXAJZ 
ECNABAHGDVSVFTCLAYKUKCVVAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH 
Fig.  5.    Facsimile  of  Form  No.  i. 


Fig.  6.     Form  No.  2  ;  one-lialf  actual  diameter. 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 


67 


Fig.  7.     Form  No.  3;  one-half  actual  diameter. 


Fig.  8.     Form  No.  4;  actual  size. 


68  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

The  data  are  in  two  groups :  The  first,  group  I,  is  from 
students  who  were  taken  separately  into  a  private  room,  and 
given  all  the  time  they  needed  to  complete  each  of  the  tests. 
In  group  II  the  students  were  all  in  one  room,  and  at  a  prear. 
ranged  signal  they  began  to  mark  the  A's  in  Form  I,  and  con- 
tinued this  for  thirty  seconds,  when,  the  signal  again  being 
given,  they  all  stopped.  In  this  same  way,  and  in  the  same 
length  of  time,  they  touched  the  dots,  Form  4,  and  traced  the 
maze,  Form  2.  They  were  not  limited  in  time  in  bisecting  the 
lines. 

Group  I.  Here  the  time  which  each  student  took  to  mark 
all  the  A's  in  Form  I,  at  the  beginning  of  a  three  months' 
period,  was  recorded,  and  the  differences,  that  is  the  losses  or 
gains  in  seconds,  determined.  The  following  is  a  distribution 
of  these  differences,  the  minuses  indicating  the  cases  in  which 
a  larger  time  was  used  in  doing  the  work,  and  the  pluses,  a 
shorter  time : 

—30,  o,  -\-s,  -f8,  +10,  +10,  +12,  4-20,  +25,  +29.  The 
median,  or  middle  number,  is  plus-f-io;  that  is,  there  is  an 
absolute  gain  for  the  whole  group  of  ten  seconds.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  time  in  seconds  taken  to  mark  the  A's  in  the  first 
test,  is  132,  125,  125,  115,  no,  no,  98,  90,  82,  75,  75.  The 
median  for  the  group  is  no  seconds.  Letting  this  stand  for  the 
time  it  took  the  group  on  the  whole  at  the  initial  test,  then  the 
gain  of  10  seconds  would  be  9  1.11%. 

The  A's  omitted  in  this  group,  where  full  time  was  allowed, 
were  so  few  as  to  be  negligible. 

The  following  are  the  time  records  in  seconds  for  each  stu- 
dent'in  touching  the  dots  (See  Form  4):  137,  126,  125,  122, 
120,  109,  91,  85,  83.  The  median  is  121.  If  from  each  of  these 
numbers  the  times  taken  for  the  final  test,  in  doing  the  same 
thing,  are  subtracted,  this  is  their  distribution :  — 7,  — 5,  — 3, 
— 3»  +6,  +13,  -f24,  +27,  +29,  +42.  The  approximate 
median  gain  is  9  seconds,  or  7  5-12%  of  the  original  median 
time  in  touching  the  dots. 

In  the  bisecting  of  the  lines  (Form  3)  for  group  I,  there  are 
two  factors — speed  and  accuracy.  The  data  below  show  that  the 
work  was   done  more   quickly,  and  at   the  same  time   there  was 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  69 

less  variation  in  placing  the  bisecting  mark  from  the  true  center. 
This  first  row  of  figures  is  the  record  in  seconds  for  each  student 
in  the  first  test:  53,  25,  23,  23,  22,  20,  17,  i7,  U.  U.  12.  The 
median  is  20.  From  the  distribution  of  the  differences  for  each 
student  in  the  final  test;  viz.  — i,  +2,  +4,  +5,  +5->  +6,  -f8, 
_^9^  _|-9,  -|-i5,  25.  The  median  gain  is  seen  as  6  seconds,  or 
in  relation  to  the  20  seconds,  it  is  30%. 

There  were  fifteen  of  the  lines  used  in  the  test.  By  getting 
the  difference  between  the  half  of  each  Ime,  as  the  students 
marked  it,  and  the  real  half,  and  dividing  the  sum  of  these 
fifteen  differences  by  15,  is  obtained  the  average  error  for  each 
student.  These  are  in  mm.  :  37,  3,  2.3,  2.3,  2,  1.7,  1.6,  1.5, 
1.2,  1. 1,  .  I.  The  median  variation  is  thus  1.7.  If  from  each  of 
these  is  taken  the  amount  m  mm.  which  was  added  to  the  real 
half-line,  on  the  last  test,  we  have  the  following  distributions  of 
differences  in  the  accuracy  of  the   first   and  final   test:    —1.3, 

-.9,  -9,  -I,  +-i^  +-^'  +■''  +-2'  +-^'  +-3'  +^-"-     ""''" 
the   median  improvement  is  .  i  mm,  or  about  6%.      This  means 

that  per  cent  of  increase  in  skill  in  bisecting  the  lines. 

The  following  are  the  records  in  seconds  for  each  student  in 

tracing  the  maze.     There  were  only   five  who  did   this  test :  72, 

57,  42,  23,  20.     The   median   is  42.     In  all   cases  there   was  a 

shortening  of  the  time,  as  the  following  differences  show :    +3, 

_^5^  _|_9^  4.17,  -1-17.     The  median  change,  or  gain,  is  9  seconds 

or  22%.  ,     ,    ,        -1        f 

For  the  number  of  times  each  student  touched  the  sides  ot 
the  maze  in  the  first  test  the  following  are  the  figures :  58,  52, 
41,  23,  23.  Median,  41.  Differences  between  these  figures  and 
the  ones  for  the  final  test:  -22,  -8,  -1,  +1,  +  6.  Here 
the  minuses  indicate  loss  of  skill,  that  is  increase  in  number  of 
touches.  The  median  gain  in  actual  number  of  touches  is  i, 
which  is  about  2%.  If  the  touches  increased  exactly  in  the 
same  per  cent  as  the  distance  it  could  be  said  that  their  rate  of 
speed  only  had  grown.  But  it  is  quite  probable  that  accuracy 
also  was  greater  in  the  second  case,  not  only  because  of  the 
questionable  difference  of  2%  in  number  of  touches  but  because 
the  number  was  not  much  greater,  as  the  greater  speed  necessi- 
tates greater  accuracy  to  keep  from  touching  the  sides. 


JO  FORMAL  DISCIPLINE 

Group  II.  As  was  said,  this  group  was  tested  as  a  class, 
the  time  being  common  for  them  all  except  in  the  case  of  bisect- 
ing the  lines.  The  maze  (Form  2)  is  divided  into  thirty  parts, 
all  of  which  can  be  traced  successfully,  that  is  without  touching 
the  side,  in  approximately  the  same  length  of  time.  So  the 
time  factor  is  eliminated  in  this  test,  and  the  following  distribu- 
tion stands  for  the  actual  distances  on  this  scale  of  30  that  each 
student  traced  at  the  initial  test:  7,  7,  8,  8,  12,  13,  14,  14. 
The  approximate  median  distance  for  the  group  then  is  10. 
These  subtracted  from  the  records  for  the  final  test  give  the 
changes  in  skill  for  this  act:  —3,  — i,  4-1.5,  +3-5j  +4>  +4-5, 
-|-5. 5,  -I-14.  The  median  gain  then  is  about  3.7  which  is  37%  of 
the  median  accomplishment  in  the  preliminary  test. 

The  record  of  the  number  of  times  the  sides  of  the  maze 
were  touched  the  first  tim^,  is:  0,  i,  4,  8,  12,  13,  31,  43.  The 
median  number  is  10.  There  was  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
touches  for  the  last  series,  as  the  following  differences  show : 
—  5,  4-4,  +8,  -1-9,  +11,4-12,  +24,  4-32.  Median,  10,  or 
100%  of  the  original  median  amount.  This  increase  is  in  part 
a  necessary  correlation  of  greater  distance,  and  consequently 
their  improvem^at  in  the  test  as  a  whole  is  left  undetermined. 

As  to  the  work  of  marking  the  A's  by  this  group,  the  dis- 
tribution is  in  terms  of  the  number  of  A's  marked  in  the  thirty 
seconds  by  each  student:  38,  41,  42,  43,  45,  62,  69,  77,  88. 
Median  number  is  45.  These  are  the  figures  for  the  first  test. 
The  differences  between  this  record  and  the  final  one  are: — 34, 
—23,  —21,  —17,  o,  4-9,  +13.  4-20,  -)-42.  As  the  median  is  o, 
there  is  no  gain  or  loss,  that  is,  the  median  for  the  last  series 
was  also  45,  as  well  as  for  the  first. 

As  to  the  bisection  of  the  lines  (Form  3),  the  averages  of 
the  deviations,  for  each  student,  of  the  15  lines,  from  the  actual 
half,  in  the  first  test  are  as  follows:  o,  8.,  i.,  1.2,  1.2,  1.7,  1.8, 
1.8,  1.9,4  mm.  Median,  1.7  mm.  When  these  same  15  lines 
were  divided  three  months  later,  the  changes  were — .5,  — .4, 
o,  4-. 4,  4-. 4,  4-.  5,  4-. 9,  4-1-2,  -I-2.3.  Median  gain  0.4  mm.,  or 
23%  of  the  median  ability  in  the  first  series. 

In  Group  I,  the  time  of  each  student  in  touching  the  dots 
(Form  4)  was  employed  as  a  measure  of  skill.      In  this  case  the 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  71 

data  refer  to  number  of  clots  touched  by  the  eight  students:  55, 
62,  63,  64,  70,  74,  90,  100.  Median,  67.  The  median  change  in 
gain  is  56.,  as  the  following  distribution  of  the  differences 
between  the  first  and  last  tests  shows:  — 30,  — 9,  o,  +4,  -\-g, 
-|-9,  -\-i2,  +27.  This  6.5  is  about  9  2-3%  of  the  median  in  the 
first  test,  and  so  represents  that  much  increase  in  skill. 

Thus  there  are  gains  in  every  case  in  motor  facility  and 
motor  accuracy.  This  is  apparently  a  direct  outcome  of  the 
special  training  which  these  students  had  undergone,  in  the  two 
to  four  months  which  had  passed  between  their  appearance  as 
untrained  stenographers,  penmen,  etc.,  to  the  time  of  the  second 
test,  when  their  technical  skill  had  greatly  increased. 


Summary 

The  main  purpose  of  the  first  part  of  this  study  was  to  state 
the  difficulty,  point  out  the  elements  involved  in  it,  and  indicate 
what  the  solution  would  be  on  logical  grounds.  The  second 
part  brought  together,  in  a  brief  form,  the  experimental  data, 
both  direct  and  indirect,  on  the  question,  and  the  third  has  added 
a  little  more  evidence  of  the  direct  sort. 

From  all  this,  it  is  admissible  to  state  the  following  con- 
clusions as  being  the  most  tenable  at  present : 

1.  There  may  be  a  large  application  of  knowledge  secured 
in  a  limited  field.  The  extent  to  which  this  may  be  valid, 
depends  largely  on  the  knowledge  or  ideal  being  consciously 
generalized.  The  limits  are  in  each  case  personal,  and  are  in. 
dependent  of  the  clearness  or  adequacy  of  the  information,  in 
the  particular  case. 

2.  This  knowledge  is  of  any  conceptual  sort,  and  so  may 
be  of  method,  ways  of  attack,  notions  of  caution,  reflection, 
care,  accuracy. 

3.  The  studies  on  Cross.Education  are  unanimous  in  show- 
ing that  the  training  in  skill  or  power  of  one  side  of  the  body  is 
effective  in  corresponding  parts,  on  the  other  side. 

4.  There  is  a  larger  transfer  of  practice  with  children  or 
youth  than  with  adults. 

5.  The  extent  of  the  effect  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  force 
of  effect,  being  strong  in  processes  functionally  alike,  and 
decreasing  as  the  processes  diverge. 

6.  The ''Common  Element"  in  any  two  functions  is  not 
to  be  a  determined  a prioti.  It  may  be  "ideal,"  physiological, 
or  objective. 

7.  There  is  some  sort  of  transfer  from  memorizing  one 
class  of  facts  to  memorizing  another  class  of  facts,  and  from 
memorizing  prose  to  memorizing  poetry.  Memorizing  poetry 
gives  increased  ability  to  memorize  figures  or   names  of  places. 

8.  Training  in  the  discrimination  of  some  colors  is  highly 


FORMAL  DISCIPLINE  73 

effective   in   the   discrimination  of   others,  much    less  so   with 
tones. 

9.  Negatively,  training  in  one  function  may  have  no 
appreciable  influence  on  another,  or  actually  impede  the  proper 
action  and  development  of  another  function. 


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